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become more responsible

  • 1 responsible

    responsible [rɪ'spɒnsəbəl]
    (a) (in charge, in authority) responsable;
    ∎ who's responsible for research? qui est chargé de la recherche?;
    ∎ he was responsible for putting the children to bed c'était lui qui couchait les enfants;
    ∎ a responsible position un poste à responsabilité
    (b) (accountable) responsable ( for de);
    ∎ he's not responsible for her behaviour il n'est pas responsable de ses actes;
    ∎ human error/a malfunction was responsible for the disaster la catastrophe était due à une erreur humaine/à une défaillance technique;
    ∎ who's responsible for this mess? qui est responsable de ce désordre?;
    ∎ he can be held legally responsible for the accident il peut être tenu légalement responsable de l'accident;
    ∎ I hold you personally responsible je vous tiens personnellement responsable;
    ∎ he is responsible only to the managing director il n'est responsable que devant le directeur général
    (c) (serious, trustworthy) sérieux, responsable;
    ∎ it wasn't very responsible of him ce n'était pas très sérieux de sa part;
    ∎ responsible newspapers won't print the story les journaux sérieux ne publieront pas cet article;
    ∎ the chemical industry has become more environmentally responsible l'industrie chimique se préoccupe davantage de l'environnement;
    ∎ they aren't responsible parents ce ne sont pas des parents dignes de ce nom;
    ∎ our bank makes responsible investments notre banque a une politique d'investissement responsable

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > responsible

  • 2 responsible

    (a) (in control, in authority) responsable;
    ∎ who's responsible for research? qui est chargé de la recherche?;
    ∎ a responsible position un poste à responsabilité
    (b) (accountable) responsable;
    ∎ he is responsible only to the managing director il n'est responsable que devant le directeur général
    (c) (serious, trustworthy) responsable;
    ∎ the chemical industry has become more environmentally responsible l'industrie chimique se préoccupe davantage de l'environnement;
    ∎ our bank makes responsible investments notre banque a une politique d'investissement responsable

    English-French business dictionary > responsible

  • 3 settle down

    1) (to (cause to) become quiet, calm and peaceful: He waited for the audience to settle down before he spoke; She settled the baby down at last.) calmarse, tranquilizarse
    2) (to make oneself comfortable: She settled (herself) down in the back of the car and went to sleep.) ponerse cómodo, acomodarse, instalarse
    3) (to begin to concentrate on something, eg work: He settled down to (do) his schoolwork.) ponerse
    1. instalarse
    2. tranquilizarse
    v.
    • radicarse v.
    • sentar v.
    • situar v.
    1) v + adv

    settle down please, children — niños, por favor, tranquilos

    d) (in place, activity)
    e) ( become more responsible) sentar* (la) cabeza
    2) v + o + adv ( make calm) calmar, tranquilizar*
    1. VI + ADV
    1) (=get comfortable) ponerse cómodo, acomodarse

    I settled down in my favourite chair — me puse cómodo or me acomodé or me arrellané en mi silla preferida

    2) (=apply o.s.)

    to settle down to sth: after dinner, he settled down to a video — después de cenar se puso a ver un vídeo

    3) (=calm down) calmarse, tranquilizarse
    4) (=adopt a stable life) echar raíces

    why don't you settle down and get married? — ¿por qué no sientas cabeza y te casas? *

    5) (=get back to normal) [situation] volver a la normalidad, normalizarse
    2. VT + ADV
    1) (=make comfortable) poner cómodo, acomodar

    why don't you help Philippa unpack and settle her down? — ¿por qué no le ayudas a Philippa a deshacer las maletas e instalarse?

    2) (=calm down) calmar, tranquilizar
    * * *
    1) v + adv

    settle down please, children — niños, por favor, tranquilos

    d) (in place, activity)
    e) ( become more responsible) sentar* (la) cabeza
    2) v + o + adv ( make calm) calmar, tranquilizar*

    English-spanish dictionary > settle down

  • 4 take over

    1) (to take control (of): He has taken the business over (noun take-over).) tomar las riendas, hacerse con el poder; entrar en funciones
    2) ((often with from) to do (something) after someone else stops doing it: He retired last year, and I took over (his job) from him.) relevar a alguien, tomar el relevo de alguien
    : tomar el poder de, tomar las riendas de
    : asumir el mando
    take over (A company, etc.)
    expr.
    • prender el control (De una empresa, etc.) expr.
    1) v + adv

    you've been driving for hours, shall I take over? — llevas horas manejando or (Esp) conduciendo ¿tomo yo el volante?

    to take over from somebody — sustituir* a alguien; ( in shift work) relevar a alguien

    b) (seize control, overrun) \<\<army\>\> hacerse* con el poder
    2) v + o + adv, v + adv + o ( take charge of) \<\<responsibility/role\>\> asumir; \<\<job\>\> hacerse* cargo de; \<\<company\>\> absorber

    (on his death) his daughter took over the business — (cuando él murió,) su hija tomó las riendas de la compañía

    1. VT + ADV
    1) (=assume) [+ responsibility] asumir; (=become responsible for) [+ job] encargarse de
    2) (=take control of) [+ building, country] tomar; (Econ) [+ company] adquirir
    2. VI + ADV
    1) (=take charge) [new president, official] entrar en funciones; (Aut) [driver] tomar el volante; (Aer) [pilot] tomar los mandos

    to take over from sb — (in job) (temporarily) hacer de suplente para algn; (permanently) reemplazar a algn

    can you take over for a few minutes, while I go to the Post Office? — ¿puedes cubrirme unos minutos mientras voy a Correos?

    2) (=seize control) [dictator, political party] tomar el poder
    3) (=become more important)
    * * *
    1) v + adv

    you've been driving for hours, shall I take over? — llevas horas manejando or (Esp) conduciendo ¿tomo yo el volante?

    to take over from somebody — sustituir* a alguien; ( in shift work) relevar a alguien

    b) (seize control, overrun) \<\<army\>\> hacerse* con el poder
    2) v + o + adv, v + adv + o ( take charge of) \<\<responsibility/role\>\> asumir; \<\<job\>\> hacerse* cargo de; \<\<company\>\> absorber

    (on his death) his daughter took over the business — (cuando él murió,) su hija tomó las riendas de la compañía

    English-spanish dictionary > take over

  • 5 Stephenson, George

    [br]
    b. 9 June 1781 Wylam, Northumberland, England
    d. 12 August 1848 Tapton House, Chesterfield, England
    [br]
    English engineer, "the father of railways".
    [br]
    George Stephenson was the son of the fireman of the pumping engine at Wylam colliery, and horses drew wagons of coal along the wooden rails of the Wylam wagonway past the house in which he was born and spent his earliest childhood. While still a child he worked as a cowherd, but soon moved to working at coal pits. At 17 years of age he showed sufficient mechanical talent to be placed in charge of a new pumping engine, and had already achieved a job more responsible than that of his father. Despite his position he was still illiterate, although he subsequently learned to read and write. He was largely self-educated.
    In 1801 he was appointed Brakesman of the winding engine at Black Callerton pit, with responsibility for lowering the miners safely to their work. Then, about two years later, he became Brakesman of a new winding engine erected by Robert Hawthorn at Willington Quay on the Tyne. Returning collier brigs discharged ballast into wagons and the engine drew the wagons up an inclined plane to the top of "Ballast Hill" for their contents to be tipped; this was one of the earliest applications of steam power to transport, other than experimentally.
    In 1804 Stephenson moved to West Moor pit, Killingworth, again as Brakesman. In 1811 he demonstrated his mechanical skill by successfully modifying a new and unsatisfactory atmospheric engine, a task that had defeated the efforts of others, to enable it to pump a drowned pit clear of water. The following year he was appointed Enginewright at Killingworth, in charge of the machinery in all the collieries of the "Grand Allies", the prominent coal-owning families of Wortley, Liddell and Bowes, with authorization also to work for others. He built many stationary engines and he closely examined locomotives of John Blenkinsop's type on the Kenton \& Coxlodge wagonway, as well as those of William Hedley at Wylam.
    It was in 1813 that Sir Thomas Liddell requested George Stephenson to build a steam locomotive for the Killingworth wagonway: Blucher made its first trial run on 25 July 1814 and was based on Blenkinsop's locomotives, although it lacked their rack-and-pinion drive. George Stephenson is credited with building the first locomotive both to run on edge rails and be driven by adhesion, an arrangement that has been the conventional one ever since. Yet Blucher was far from perfect and over the next few years, while other engineers ignored the steam locomotive, Stephenson built a succession of them, each an improvement on the last.
    During this period many lives were lost in coalmines from explosions of gas ignited by miners' lamps. By observation and experiment (sometimes at great personal risk) Stephenson invented a satisfactory safety lamp, working independently of the noted scientist Sir Humphry Davy who also invented such a lamp around the same time.
    In 1817 George Stephenson designed his first locomotive for an outside customer, the Kilmarnock \& Troon Railway, and in 1819 he laid out the Hetton Colliery Railway in County Durham, for which his brother Robert was Resident Engineer. This was the first railway to be worked entirely without animal traction: it used inclined planes with stationary engines, self-acting inclined planes powered by gravity, and locomotives.
    On 19 April 1821 Stephenson was introduced to Edward Pease, one of the main promoters of the Stockton \& Darlington Railway (S \& DR), which by coincidence received its Act of Parliament the same day. George Stephenson carried out a further survey, to improve the proposed line, and in this he was assisted by his 18-year-old son, Robert Stephenson, whom he had ensured received the theoretical education which he himself lacked. It is doubtful whether either could have succeeded without the other; together they were to make the steam railway practicable.
    At George Stephenson's instance, much of the S \& DR was laid with wrought-iron rails recently developed by John Birkinshaw at Bedlington Ironworks, Morpeth. These were longer than cast-iron rails and were not brittle: they made a track well suited for locomotives. In June 1823 George and Robert Stephenson, with other partners, founded a firm in Newcastle upon Tyne to build locomotives and rolling stock and to do general engineering work: after its Managing Partner, the firm was called Robert Stephenson \& Co.
    In 1824 the promoters of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) invited George Stephenson to resurvey their proposed line in order to reduce opposition to it. William James, a wealthy land agent who had become a visionary protagonist of a national railway network and had seen Stephenson's locomotives at Killingworth, had promoted the L \& MR with some merchants of Liverpool and had carried out the first survey; however, he overreached himself in business and, shortly after the invitation to Stephenson, became bankrupt. In his own survey, however, George Stephenson lacked the assistance of his son Robert, who had left for South America, and he delegated much of the detailed work to incompetent assistants. During a devastating Parliamentary examination in the spring of 1825, much of his survey was shown to be seriously inaccurate and the L \& MR's application for an Act of Parliament was refused. The railway's promoters discharged Stephenson and had their line surveyed yet again, by C.B. Vignoles.
    The Stockton \& Darlington Railway was, however, triumphantly opened in the presence of vast crowds in September 1825, with Stephenson himself driving the locomotive Locomotion, which had been built at Robert Stephenson \& Co.'s Newcastle works. Once the railway was at work, horse-drawn and gravity-powered traffic shared the line with locomotives: in 1828 Stephenson invented the horse dandy, a wagon at the back of a train in which a horse could travel over the gravity-operated stretches, instead of trotting behind.
    Meanwhile, in May 1826, the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway had successfully obtained its Act of Parliament. Stephenson was appointed Engineer in June, and since he and Vignoles proved incompatible the latter left early in 1827. The railway was built by Stephenson and his staff, using direct labour. A considerable controversy arose c. 1828 over the motive power to be used: the traffic anticipated was too great for horses, but the performance of the reciprocal system of cable haulage developed by Benjamin Thompson appeared in many respects superior to that of contemporary locomotives. The company instituted a prize competition for a better locomotive and the Rainhill Trials were held in October 1829.
    Robert Stephenson had been working on improved locomotive designs since his return from America in 1827, but it was the L \& MR's Treasurer, Henry Booth, who suggested the multi-tubular boiler to George Stephenson. This was incorporated into a locomotive built by Robert Stephenson for the trials: Rocket was entered by the three men in partnership. The other principal entrants were Novelty, entered by John Braithwaite and John Ericsson, and Sans Pareil, entered by Timothy Hackworth, but only Rocket, driven by George Stephenson, met all the organizers' demands; indeed, it far surpassed them and demonstrated the practicability of the long-distance steam railway. With the opening of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway in 1830, the age of railways began.
    Stephenson was active in many aspects. He advised on the construction of the Belgian State Railway, of which the Brussels-Malines section, opened in 1835, was the first all-steam railway on the European continent. In England, proposals to link the L \& MR with the Midlands had culminated in an Act of Parliament for the Grand Junction Railway in 1833: this was to run from Warrington, which was already linked to the L \& MR, to Birmingham. George Stephenson had been in charge of the surveys, and for the railway's construction he and J.U. Rastrick were initially Principal Engineers, with Stephenson's former pupil Joseph Locke under them; by 1835 both Stephenson and Rastrick had withdrawn and Locke was Engineer-in-Chief. Stephenson remained much in demand elsewhere: he was particularly associated with the construction of the North Midland Railway (Derby to Leeds) and related lines. He was active in many other places and carried out, for instance, preliminary surveys for the Chester \& Holyhead and Newcastle \& Berwick Railways, which were important links in the lines of communication between London and, respectively, Dublin and Edinburgh.
    He eventually retired to Tapton House, Chesterfield, overlooking the North Midland. A man who was self-made (with great success) against colossal odds, he was ever reluctant, regrettably, to give others their due credit, although in retirement, immensely wealthy and full of honour, he was still able to mingle with people of all ranks.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    President, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, on its formation in 1847. Order of Leopold (Belgium) 1835. Stephenson refused both a knighthood and Fellowship of the Royal Society.
    Bibliography
    1815, jointly with Ralph Dodd, British patent no. 3,887 (locomotive drive by connecting rods directly to the wheels).
    1817, jointly with William Losh, British patent no. 4,067 (steam springs for locomotives, and improvements to track).
    Further Reading
    L.T.C.Rolt, 1960, George and Robert Stephenson, Longman (the best modern biography; includes a bibliography).
    S.Smiles, 1874, The Lives of George and Robert Stephenson, rev. edn, London (although sycophantic, this is probably the best nineteenthcentury biography).
    PJGR

    Biographical history of technology > Stephenson, George

  • 6 Intelligence Services

       Little information, much less knowledge, has been made public regarding Portugal's various intelligence services in recent times. Some information was published about the notorious political police during the Estado Novo (1926-74), but much less is known about intelligence units active during democratic Portugal (1974-). Although no comprehensive study has documented the Estado Novo's political police, the PIDE, which operated after 1932 under various names and was sometimes compared to the Portuguese Inquisition (1536-1821), more has become known since Portugal's democracy was established, on 25 April 1974. One striking feature of the pre-1974 political police's work was its multifunctional nature: in addition to terrorizing, persecuting, and sometimes murdering the opposition, PIDE operated a prison system, was empowered by special laws to detain prisoners for 90 days or more without charge, carried out criminal investigations, produced political and foreign intelligence for leaders, and exercised some censorship functions, as well as having the power of arrest.
       With the end of censorship after the Revolution of 25 April 1974 and the abolition of the political police, which had many informants among the population, more information was published on the intelligence services. Given the tragic, tangled history of the Estado Novo's political police and its impact, the new democratic regime was reluctant to set up intelligence services immediately. Care was taken to ensure that such activities under a democratic government would be conducted under strictly observed laws and would be consonant with democratic values and principles. Intelligence units were developed only in the 1980s and were oriented to report to the prime minister, as well as to the ministers of the interior and of national defense. By the late 1990s, the Serviço de Informações Estratégicas de Defesa e Militar/Strategic Defense and Military Information Service (SIEDM) was operating under the Ministry of Interior, along with Serviço de Informações de Segurança/Security Information Service (SIS), a civilian outfit responsible for domestic security. Along with the SIEDM, other military intelligence units are also responsible to the Ministry of National Defense, such as the Serviço de Informações Militares/Mili-tary Information Service (SIM) and Divisão de Informacões Militares/ Military Information Division (DIMIL). In the national legislature, the Assembly of the Republic, a number of permanent committees are responsible for monitoring intelligence activities.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Intelligence Services

  • 7 near cash

    !
    гос. фин. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    This paper provides background information on the framework for the planning and control of public expenditure in the UK which has been operated since the 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR). It sets out the different classifications of spending for budgeting purposes and why these distinctions have been adopted. It discusses how the public expenditure framework is designed to ensure both sound public finances and an outcome-focused approach to public expenditure.
    The UK's public spending framework is based on several key principles:
    "
    consistency with a long-term, prudent and transparent regime for managing the public finances as a whole;
    " "
    the judgement of success by policy outcomes rather than resource inputs;
    " "
    strong incentives for departments and their partners in service delivery to plan over several years and plan together where appropriate so as to deliver better public services with greater cost effectiveness; and
    "
    the proper costing and management of capital assets to provide the right incentives for public investment.
    The Government sets policy to meet two firm fiscal rules:
    "
    the Golden Rule states that over the economic cycle, the Government will borrow only to invest and not to fund current spending; and
    "
    the Sustainable Investment Rule states that net public debt as a proportion of GDP will be held over the economic cycle at a stable and prudent level. Other things being equal, net debt will be maintained below 40 per cent of GDP over the economic cycle.
    Achievement of the fiscal rules is assessed by reference to the national accounts, which are produced by the Office for National Statistics, acting as an independent agency. The Government sets its spending envelope to comply with these fiscal rules.
    Departmental Expenditure Limits ( DEL) and Annually Managed Expenditure (AME)
    "
    Departmental Expenditure Limit ( DEL) spending, which is planned and controlled on a three year basis in Spending Reviews; and
    "
    Annually Managed Expenditure ( AME), which is expenditure which cannot reasonably be subject to firm, multi-year limits in the same way as DEL. AME includes social security benefits, local authority self-financed expenditure, debt interest, and payments to EU institutions.
    More information about DEL and AME is set out below.
    In Spending Reviews, firm DEL plans are set for departments for three years. To ensure consistency with the Government's fiscal rules departments are set separate resource (current) and capital budgets. The resource budget contains a separate control total for “near cash” expenditure, that is expenditure such as pay and current grants which impacts directly on the measure of the golden rule.
    To encourage departments to plan over the medium term departments may carry forward unspent DEL provision from one year into the next and, subject to the normal tests for tautness and realism of plans, may be drawn down in future years. This end-year flexibility also removes any incentive for departments to use up their provision as the year end approaches with less regard to value for money. For the full benefits of this flexibility and of three year plans to feed through into improved public service delivery, end-year flexibility and three year budgets should be cascaded from departments to executive agencies and other budget holders.
    Three year budgets and end-year flexibility give those managing public services the stability to plan their operations on a sensible time scale. Further, the system means that departments cannot seek to bid up funds each year (before 1997, three year plans were set and reviewed in annual Public Expenditure Surveys). So the credibility of medium-term plans has been enhanced at both central and departmental level.
    Departments have certainty over the budgetary allocation over the medium term and these multi-year DEL plans are strictly enforced. Departments are expected to prioritise competing pressures and fund these within their overall annual limits, as set in Spending Reviews. So the DEL system provides a strong incentive to control costs and maximise value for money.
    There is a small centrally held DEL Reserve. Support from the Reserve is available only for genuinely unforeseeable contingencies which departments cannot be expected to manage within their DEL.
    AME typically consists of programmes which are large, volatile and demand-led, and which therefore cannot reasonably be subject to firm multi-year limits. The biggest single element is social security spending. Other items include tax credits, Local Authority Self Financed Expenditure, Scottish Executive spending financed by non-domestic rates, and spending financed from the proceeds of the National Lottery.
    AME is reviewed twice a year as part of the Budget and Pre-Budget Report process reflecting the close integration of the tax and benefit system, which was enhanced by the introduction of tax credits.
    AME is not subject to the same three year expenditure limits as DEL, but is still part of the overall envelope for public expenditure. Affordability is taken into account when policy decisions affecting AME are made. The Government has committed itself not to take policy measures which are likely to have the effect of increasing social security or other elements of AME without taking steps to ensure that the effects of those decisions can be accommodated prudently within the Government's fiscal rules.
    Given an overall envelope for public spending, forecasts of AME affect the level of resources available for DEL spending. Cautious estimates and the AME margin are built in to these AME forecasts and reduce the risk of overspending on AME.
    Together, DEL plus AME sum to Total Managed Expenditure (TME). TME is a measure drawn from national accounts. It represents the current and capital spending of the public sector. The public sector is made up of central government, local government and public corporations.
    Resource and Capital Budgets are set in terms of accruals information. Accruals information measures resources as they are consumed rather than when the cash is paid. So for example the Resource Budget includes a charge for depreciation, a measure of the consumption or wearing out of capital assets.
    "
    Non cash charges in budgets do not impact directly on the fiscal framework. That may be because the national accounts use a different way of measuring the same thing, for example in the case of the depreciation of departmental assets. Or it may be that the national accounts measure something different: for example, resource budgets include a cost of capital charge reflecting the opportunity cost of holding capital; the national accounts include debt interest.
    "
    Within the Resource Budget DEL, departments have separate controls on:
    "
    Near cash spending, the sub set of Resource Budgets which impacts directly on the Golden Rule; and
    "
    The amount of their Resource Budget DEL that departments may spend on running themselves (e.g. paying most civil servants’ salaries) is limited by Administration Budgets, which are set in Spending Reviews. Administration Budgets are used to ensure that as much money as practicable is available for front line services and programmes. These budgets also help to drive efficiency improvements in departments’ own activities. Administration Budgets exclude the costs of frontline services delivered directly by departments.
    The Budget preceding a Spending Review sets an overall envelope for public spending that is consistent with the fiscal rules for the period covered by the Spending Review. In the Spending Review, the Budget AME forecast for year one of the Spending Review period is updated, and AME forecasts are made for the later years of the Spending Review period.
    The 1998 Comprehensive Spending Review ( CSR), which was published in July 1998, was a comprehensive review of departmental aims and objectives alongside a zero-based analysis of each spending programme to determine the best way of delivering the Government's objectives. The 1998 CSR allocated substantial additional resources to the Government's key priorities, particularly education and health, for the three year period from 1999-2000 to 2001-02.
    Delivering better public services does not just depend on how much money the Government spends, but also on how well it spends it. Therefore the 1998 CSR introduced Public Service Agreements (PSAs). Each major government department was given its own PSA setting out clear targets for achievements in terms of public service improvements.
    The 1998 CSR also introduced the DEL/ AME framework for the control of public spending, and made other framework changes. Building on the investment and reforms delivered by the 1998 CSR, successive spending reviews in 2000, 2002 and 2004 have:
    "
    provided significant increase in resources for the Government’s priorities, in particular health and education, and cross-cutting themes such as raising productivity; extending opportunity; and building strong and secure communities;
    " "
    enabled the Government significantly to increase investment in public assets and address the legacy of under investment from past decades. Departmental Investment Strategies were introduced in SR2000. As a result there has been a steady increase in public sector net investment from less than ¾ of a per cent of GDP in 1997-98 to 2¼ per cent of GDP in 2005-06, providing better infrastructure across public services;
    " "
    introduced further refinements to the performance management framework. PSA targets have been reduced in number over successive spending reviews from around 300 to 110 to give greater focus to the Government’s highest priorities. The targets have become increasingly outcome-focused to deliver further improvements in key areas of public service delivery across Government. They have also been refined in line with the conclusions of the Devolving Decision Making Review to provide a framework which encourages greater devolution and local flexibility. Technical Notes were introduced in SR2000 explaining how performance against each PSA target will be measured; and
    "
    not only allocated near cash spending to departments, but also – since SR2002 - set Resource DEL plans for non cash spending.
    To identify what further investments and reforms are needed to equip the UK for the global challenges of the decade ahead, on 19 July 2005 the Chief Secretary to the Treasury announced that the Government intends to launch a second Comprehensive Spending Review (CSR) reporting in 2007.
    A decade on from the first CSR, the 2007 CSR will represent a long-term and fundamental review of government expenditure. It will cover departmental allocations for 2008-09, 2009-10 and 2010 11. Allocations for 2007-08 will be held to the agreed figures already announced by the 2004 Spending Review. To provide a rigorous analytical framework for these departmental allocations, the Government will be taking forward a programme of preparatory work over 2006 involving:
    "
    an assessment of what the sustained increases in spending and reforms to public service delivery have achieved since the first CSR. The assessment will inform the setting of new objectives for the decade ahead;
    " "
    an examination of the key long-term trends and challenges that will shape the next decade – including demographic and socio-economic change, globalisation, climate and environmental change, global insecurity and technological change – together with an assessment of how public services will need to respond;
    " "
    to release the resources needed to address these challenges, and to continue to secure maximum value for money from public spending over the CSR period, a set of zero-based reviews of departments’ baseline expenditure to assess its effectiveness in delivering the Government’s long-term objectives; together with
    "
    further development of the efficiency programme, building on the cross cutting areas identified in the Gershon Review, to embed and extend ongoing efficiency savings into departmental expenditure planning.
    The 2007 CSR also offers the opportunity to continue to refine the PSA framework so that it drives effective delivery and the attainment of ambitious national standards.
    Public Service Agreements (PSAs) were introduced in the 1998 CSR. They set out agreed targets detailing the outputs and outcomes departments are expected to deliver with the resources allocated to them. The new spending regime places a strong emphasis on outcome targets, for example in providing for better health and higher educational standards or service standards. The introduction in SR2004 of PSA ‘standards’ will ensure that high standards in priority areas are maintained.
    The Government monitors progress against PSA targets, and departments report in detail twice a year in their annual Departmental Reports (published in spring) and in their autumn performance reports. These reports provide Parliament and the public with regular updates on departments’ performance against their targets.
    Technical Notes explain how performance against each PSA target will be measured.
    To make the most of both new investment and existing assets, there needs to be a coherent long term strategy against which investment decisions are taken. Departmental Investment Strategies (DIS) set out each department's plans to deliver the scale and quality of capital stock needed to underpin its objectives. The DIS includes information about the department's existing capital stock and future plans for that stock, as well as plans for new investment. It also sets out the systems that the department has in place to ensure that it delivers its capital programmes effectively.
    This document was updated on 19 December 2005.
    Near-cash resource expenditure that has a related cash implication, even though the timing of the cash payment may be slightly different. For example, expenditure on gas or electricity supply is incurred as the fuel is used, though the cash payment might be made in arrears on aquarterly basis. Other examples of near-cash expenditure are: pay, rental.Net cash requirement the upper limit agreed by Parliament on the cash which a department may draw from theConsolidated Fund to finance the expenditure within the ambit of its Request forResources. It is equal to the agreed amount of net resources and net capital less non-cashitems and working capital.Non-cash cost costs where there is no cash transaction but which are included in a body’s accounts (or taken into account in charging for a service) to establish the true cost of all the resourcesused.Non-departmental a body which has a role in the processes of government, but is not a government public body, NDPBdepartment or part of one. NDPBs accordingly operate at arm’s length from governmentMinisters.Notional cost of a cost which is taken into account in setting fees and charges to improve comparability with insuranceprivate sector service providers.The charge takes account of the fact that public bodies donot generally pay an insurance premium to a commercial insurer.the independent body responsible for collecting and publishing official statistics about theUK’s society and economy. (At the time of going to print legislation was progressing tochange this body to the Statistics Board).Office of Government an office of the Treasury, with a status similar to that of an agency, which aims to maximise Commerce, OGCthe government’s purchasing power for routine items and combine professional expertiseto bear on capital projects.Office of the the government department responsible for discharging the Paymaster General’s statutoryPaymaster General,responsibilities to hold accounts and make payments for government departments and OPGother public bodies.Orange bookthe informal title for Management of Risks: Principles and Concepts, which is published by theTreasury for the guidance of public sector bodies.Office for NationalStatistics, ONS60Managing Public Money
    ————————————————————————————————————————
    "
    GLOSSARYOverdraftan account with a negative balance.Parliament’s formal agreement to authorise an activity or expenditure.Prerogative powerspowers exercisable under the Royal Prerogative, ie powers which are unique to the Crown,as contrasted with common-law powers which may be available to the Crown on the samebasis as to natural persons.Primary legislationActs which have been passed by the Westminster Parliament and, where they haveappropriate powers, the Scottish Parliament and the Northern Ireland Assembly. Begin asBills until they have received Royal Assent.arrangements under which a public sector organisation contracts with a private sectorentity to construct a facility and provide associated services of a specified quality over asustained period. See annex 7.5.Proprietythe principle that patterns of resource consumption should respect Parliament’s intentions,conventions and control procedures, including any laid down by the PAC. See box 2.4.Public Accountssee Committee of Public Accounts.CommitteePublic corporationa trading body controlled by central government, local authority or other publiccorporation that has substantial day to day operating independence. See section 7.8.Public Dividend finance provided by government to public sector bodies as an equity stake; an alternative to Capital, PDCloan finance.Public Service sets out what the public can expect the government to deliver with its resources. EveryAgreement, PSAlarge government department has PSA(s) which specify deliverables as targets or aimsrelated to objectives.a structured arrangement between a public sector and a private sector organisation tosecure an outcome delivering good value for money for the public sector. It is classified tothe public or private sector according to which has more control.Rate of returnthe financial remuneration delivered by a particular project or enterprise, expressed as apercentage of the net assets employed.Regularitythe principle that resource consumption should accord with the relevant legislation, therelevant delegated authority and this document. See box 2.4.Request for the functional level into which departmental Estimates may be split. RfRs contain a number Resources, RfRof functions being carried out by the department in pursuit of one or more of thatdepartment’s objectives.Resource accountan accruals account produced in line with the Financial Reporting Manual (FReM).Resource accountingthe system under which budgets, Estimates and accounts are constructed in a similar wayto commercial audited accounts, so that both plans and records of expenditure allow in fullfor the goods and services which are to be, or have been, consumed – ie not just the cashexpended.Resource budgetthe means by which the government plans and controls the expenditure of resources tomeet its objectives.Restitutiona legal concept which allows money and property to be returned to its rightful owner. Ittypically operates where another person can be said to have been unjustly enriched byreceiving such monies.Return on capital the ratio of profit to capital employed of an accounting entity during an identified period.employed, ROCEVarious measures of profit and of capital employed may be used in calculating the ratio.Public Privatepartnership, PPPPrivate Finance Initiative, PFIParliamentaryauthority61Managing Public Money
    "
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    GLOSSARYRoyal charterthe document setting out the powers and constitution of a corporation established underprerogative power of the monarch acting on Privy Council advice.Second readingthe second formal time that a House of Parliament may debate a bill, although in practicethe first substantive debate on its content. If successful, it is deemed to denoteParliamentary approval of the principle of the proposed legislation.Secondary legislationlaws, including orders and regulations, which are made using powers in primary legislation.Normally used to set out technical and administrative provision in greater detail thanprimary legislation, they are subject to a less intense level of scrutiny in Parliament.European legislation is,however,often implemented in secondary legislation using powers inthe European Communities Act 1972.Service-level agreement between parties, setting out in detail the level of service to be performed.agreementWhere agreements are between central government bodies, they are not legally a contractbut have a similar function.Shareholder Executive a body created to improve the government’s performance as a shareholder in businesses.Spending reviewsets out the key improvements in public services that the public can expect over a givenperiod. It includes a thorough review of departmental aims and objectives to find the bestway of delivering the government’s objectives, and sets out the spending plans for the givenperiod.State aidstate support for a domestic body or company which could distort EU competition and sois not usually allowed. See annex 4.9.Statement of Excessa formal statement detailing departments’ overspends prepared by the Comptroller andAuditor General as a result of undertaking annual audits.Statement on Internal an annual statement that Accounting Officers are required to make as part of the accounts Control, SICon a range of risk and control issues.Subheadindividual elements of departmental expenditure identifiable in Estimates as single cells, forexample cell A1 being administration costs within a particular line of departmental spending.Supplyresources voted by Parliament in response to Estimates, for expenditure by governmentdepartments.Supply Estimatesa statement of the resources the government needs in the coming financial year, and forwhat purpose(s), by which Parliamentary authority is sought for the planned level ofexpenditure and income.Target rate of returnthe rate of return required of a project or enterprise over a given period, usually at least a year.Third sectorprivate sector bodies which do not act commercially,including charities,social and voluntaryorganisations and other not-for-profit collectives. See annex 7.7.Total Managed a Treasury budgeting term which covers all current and capital spending carried out by the Expenditure,TMEpublic sector (ie not just by central departments).Trading fundan organisation (either within a government department or forming one) which is largely orwholly financed from commercial revenue generated by its activities. Its Estimate shows itsnet impact, allowing its income from receipts to be devoted entirely to its business.Treasury Minutea formal administrative document drawn up by the Treasury, which may serve a wide varietyof purposes including seeking Parliamentary approval for the use of receipts asappropriations in aid, a remission of some or all of the principal of voted loans, andresponding on behalf of the government to reports by the Public Accounts Committee(PAC).62Managing Public Money
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    GLOSSARY63Managing Public MoneyValue for moneythe process under which organisation’s procurement, projects and processes aresystematically evaluated and assessed to provide confidence about suitability, effectiveness,prudence,quality,value and avoidance of error and other waste,judged for the public sectoras a whole.Virementthe process through which funds are moved between subheads such that additionalexpenditure on one is met by savings on one or more others.Votethe process by which Parliament approves funds in response to supply Estimates.Voted expenditureprovision for expenditure that has been authorised by Parliament. Parliament ‘votes’authority for public expenditure through the Supply Estimates process. Most expenditureby central government departments is authorised in this way.Wider market activity activities undertaken by central government organisations outside their statutory duties,using spare capacity and aimed at generating a commercial profit. See annex 7.6.Windfallmonies received by a department which were not anticipated in the spending review.
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    Англо-русский экономический словарь > near cash

  • 8 way

    way [weɪ]
    chemin ⇒ 1A (a)-(c) voie ⇒ 1A (a) route ⇒ 1A (a), 1A (c) direction ⇒ 1A (d) sens ⇒ 1A (d), 1A (e) parages ⇒ 1A (f) moyen ⇒ 1B (a) méthode ⇒ 1B (a) façon ⇒ 1B (b) manière ⇒ 1B (b), 1B (c) coutume ⇒ 1B (c) habitude ⇒ 1B (c) égard ⇒ 1B (f) rapport ⇒ 1B (f)
    1 noun
    A.
    (a) (thoroughfare, path) chemin m, voie f; (for cars) rue f, route f;
    ∎ we took the way through the woods nous avons pris le chemin qui traverse le bois;
    ∎ they're building a way across the desert ils ouvrent une route à travers le désert;
    ∎ they live across or over the way from the school ils habitent en face de l'école;
    ∎ the house/the people over or across the way la maison/les gens d'en face;
    ∎ pedestrian way voie f ou rue f piétonne;
    ∎ private/public way voie f privée/publique;
    ∎ Religion the Way of the Cross le chemin de Croix
    ∎ this is the way to the library la bibliothèque est par là;
    ∎ could you tell me the way to the library? pouvez-vous me dire comment aller à la bibliothèque?;
    ∎ what's the shortest or quickest way to town? quel est le chemin le plus court pour aller en ville?;
    ∎ that's the way to ruin c'est le chemin de la ruine;
    ∎ we took the long way (round) nous avons pris le chemin le plus long;
    ∎ which way does this bus go? par où passe ce bus?;
    ∎ I had to ask the or my way il a fallu que je demande mon chemin;
    ∎ she knows the way to school elle connaît le chemin de l'école;
    ∎ to know one's way about a place connaître un endroit;
    ∎ you'll soon find your way about tu trouveras bientôt ton chemin tout seul;
    ∎ they went the wrong way ils se sont trompés de chemin, ils ont pris le mauvais chemin;
    ∎ to lose one's way s'égarer, perdre son chemin; figurative s'égarer, se fourvoyer;
    ∎ to know one's way around savoir s'orienter; figurative savoir se débrouiller;
    ∎ the way to a man's heart is through his stomach = pour conquérir le cœur d'un homme, il faut lui faire de bons petits plats
    ∎ the way back le chemin ou la route du retour;
    ∎ I got lost on the way back home je me suis perdu sur le chemin du retour;
    ∎ he couldn't find the way back home il n'a pas trouvé le chemin pour rentrer (à la maison);
    ∎ on our way back we stopped for dinner au retour ou sur le chemin du retour, nous nous sommes arrêtés pour dîner;
    ∎ she showed us the easiest way down/up elle nous a montré le chemin le plus facile pour descendre/monter;
    ∎ the way up is difficult but the way down will be easier la montée est difficile mais la descente sera plus facile;
    ∎ do you know the way down/up? savez-vous par où on descend/on monte?;
    ∎ the way in l'entrée f;
    ∎ the way out la sortie;
    ∎ we looked for a way in/out nous cherchions un moyen d'entrer/de sortir;
    ∎ I took the back way out je suis sorti par derrière;
    ∎ can you find your way out? vous connaissez le chemin pour sortir?;
    ∎ I can find my own way out je trouverai mon chemin;
    ∎ way in (sign) entrée;
    ∎ way out (sign) sortie;
    ∎ figurative miniskirts are on the way back in la minijupe est de retour;
    ∎ miniskirts are on the way out la minijupe n'est plus tellement à la mode;
    ∎ the director is on the way out le directeur ne sera plus là très longtemps;
    ∎ they found a way out of the deadlock ils ont trouvé une solution pour sortir de l'impasse;
    ∎ is there no way out of this nightmare? n'y a-t-il pas moyen de mettre fin à ce cauchemar?;
    ∎ their decision left her no way out leur décision l'a mise dans une impasse;
    ∎ he left himself a way out il s'est ménagé une porte de sortie
    (d) (direction) direction f, sens m;
    ∎ come this way venez par ici;
    ∎ he went that way il est allé par là;
    ∎ is this the way? c'est par ici?;
    ∎ this way to the chapel (sign) vers la chapelle;
    ∎ this way and that de-ci de-là, par-ci par-là;
    ∎ look this way regarde par ici;
    ∎ I never looked their way je n'ai jamais regardé dans leur direction;
    ∎ to look the other way détourner les yeux; figurative fermer les yeux;
    ∎ he didn't know which way to look (embarrassed) il ne savait plus où se mettre;
    ∎ which way is the library from here? par où faut-il passer pour aller à la bibliothèque?;
    ∎ which way did you come? par où êtes-vous venu?;
    ∎ which way did she go? par où est-elle passée?;
    ∎ which way is the wind blowing? d'où vient le vent?;
    ∎ figurative I could tell which way the wind was blowing je voyais très bien ce qui allait se passer;
    ∎ which way does the tap turn? dans quel sens faut-il tourner le robinet?;
    ∎ which way do I go from here? où est-ce que je vais maintenant?; figurative qu'est-ce que je fais maintenant?;
    ∎ get in, I'm going your way montez, je vais dans la même direction que vous;
    ∎ they set off, each going his own way ils sont partis chacun de leur côté;
    ∎ to go one's own way (follow own wishes) faire à sa guise; (differ from others) faire bande à part, suivre son chemin;
    ∎ we each went our separate ways (on road) nous sommes partis chacun de notre côté; (in life) chacun de nous a suivi son propre chemin;
    ∎ he went the wrong way il a pris la mauvaise direction; (down one-way street) il a pris la rue en sens interdit;
    ∎ to come one's way se présenter;
    ∎ any job that comes my way n'importe quel travail qui se présente;
    ∎ if ever the opportunity comes your way si jamais l'occasion se présente;
    ∎ familiar everything's going my way tout marche comme je veux en ce moment;
    ∎ the vote went our way le vote nous a été favorable;
    ∎ the vote couldn't have gone any other way les résultats du vote étaient donnés d'avance;
    ∎ to go one's own way n'en faire qu'à sa tête, vivre à sa guise;
    ∎ to go the way of all flesh or of all things mourir
    (e) (side) sens m;
    ∎ stand the box the other way up posez le carton dans l'autre sens;
    ∎ hold the picture the right way up tenez le tableau dans le bon sens;
    ∎ is it the right way round? est-ce qu'il est à l'endroit?;
    ∎ it's the wrong way up c'est dans le mauvais sens;
    ∎ it's the wrong way round c'est dans le mauvais sens;
    ∎ the curtains are the wrong way round les rideaux sont à l'envers ou dans le mauvais sens;
    ∎ your sweater is the right/wrong way out votre pull est à l'endroit/à l'envers;
    ∎ try it the other way round essayez dans l'autre sens;
    ∎ cats hate having their fur brushed the wrong way les chats détestent qu'on les caresse à rebrousse-poil;
    ∎ SHE insulted him? you've got it the wrong way round elle, elle l'a insulté? mais c'est le contraire;
    ∎ he invited her tonight, last time it was the other way round ce soir c'est lui qui l'a invitée, la dernière fois c'était l'inverse
    (f) (area, vicinity) parages mpl;
    ∎ call in when you're up our way passez nous voir quand vous êtes dans le coin ou dans les parages;
    ∎ I was out or over your way yesterday j'étais près de ou du côté de chez vous hier;
    ∎ the next time you're that way la prochaine fois que vous passerez par là;
    ∎ the blast came from Chicago way l'explosion venait du côté de Chicago;
    ∎ the village is rather out of the way le village est un peu isolé
    ∎ we came part of the way by foot nous avons fait une partie de la route à pied;
    ∎ to go part of the way with sb faire un bout de chemin avec qn;
    ∎ they were one-third of the way through their trip ils avaient fait un tiers de leur voyage;
    ∎ we've come most of the way nous avons fait la plus grande partie du chemin;
    ∎ he talked the entire or whole way il a parlé pendant tout le trajet;
    ∎ he can swim quite a way il peut nager assez longtemps;
    ∎ a long way off or away loin;
    ∎ a little or short way off pas très loin, à courte distance;
    ∎ Susan sat a little way off Susan était assise un peu plus loin;
    ∎ I saw him from a long way off je l'ai aperçu de loin;
    ∎ it's a long way to Berlin Berlin est loin;
    ∎ it's a long way from Paris to Berlin la route est longue de Paris à Berlin;
    ∎ we're a long way from home nous sommes loin de chez nous;
    ∎ we've come a long way (from far away) nous venons de loin; (made progress) nous avons fait du chemin;
    ∎ we've a long way to go (far to travel) il nous reste beaucoup de route à faire; (a lot to do) nous avons encore beaucoup à faire; (a lot to collect, pay) nous sommes encore loin du compte;
    ∎ he has a long way to go to be ready for the exam il est loin d'être prêt pour l'examen
    ∎ it's a long way to Christmas Noël est encore loin;
    ∎ you have to go back a long way il faut remonter loin;
    ∎ figurative I'm a long way from trusting him je suis loin de lui faire confiance;
    ∎ you're a long way off or out (in guessing) vous n'y êtes pas du tout;
    ∎ that's a long way from what we thought ce n'est pas du tout ce qu'on croyait;
    ∎ she'll go a long way elle ira loin;
    ∎ the scholarship will go a long way towards helping with expenses la bourse va beaucoup aider à faire face aux dépenses;
    ∎ a little goodwill goes a long way un peu de bonne volonté facilite bien les choses;
    ∎ you can make a little meat go a long way by doing this utilisez au mieux un petit morceau de viande en faisant ceci;
    ∎ she makes her money go a long way elle sait ménager son argent;
    ∎ a little bit goes a long way il en faut très peu;
    ∎ humorous a little of him goes a long way il est sympa, mais à petites doses
    (i) (space in front of person, object)
    ∎ you're in the way tu gênes le passage; figurative tu gênes, tu me/nous/ etc déranges;
    ∎ a tree was in the way un arbre bloquait ou barrait le passage;
    ∎ a car was in his way une voiture lui barrait le passage ou l'empêchait de passer;
    ∎ I can't see, the cat is in the way je ne vois pas, le chat me gêne;
    ∎ is the lamp in your way? la lampe vous gêne-t-elle?;
    ∎ put the suitcases under the bed out of the way rangez les valises sous le lit pour qu'elles ne gênent pas;
    ∎ to get out of the way s'écarter (du chemin);
    ∎ we got out of his way nous l'avons laissé passer;
    ∎ out of my way! pousse-toi!, laisse-moi passer!;
    ∎ the cars got out of the ambulance's way les voitures ont laissé passer l'ambulance;
    ∎ to get sb out of the way se débarrasser de qn, écarter ou éloigner qn;
    ∎ to get sth out of the way enlever ou pousser qch;
    ∎ figurative let's get the subject of holidays out of the way first réglons d'abord la question des vacances;
    ∎ keep out of the way! ne reste pas là!;
    ∎ make way! écartez-vous!;
    ∎ make way for the parade! laissez passer le défilé!;
    ∎ make way for the President! faites place au Président!;
    ∎ to get in one another's way se gêner (les uns les autres);
    ∎ figurative her social life got in the way of her studies ses sorties l'empêchaient d'étudier;
    ∎ I don't want to get in the way of your happiness je ne veux pas entraver votre bonheur;
    ∎ I kept out of the boss's way j'ai évité le patron;
    ∎ familiar he wants his boss out of the way il veut se débarrasser de son patron□ ;
    ∎ familiar once the meeting is out of the way dès que nous serons débarrassés de la réunion;
    ∎ he is retiring to make way for a younger man il prend sa retraite pour céder la place à un plus jeune;
    ∎ they tore down the slums to make way for blocks of flats ils ont démoli les taudis pour pouvoir construire des immeubles;
    ∎ to clear or prepare the way for sth préparer la voie à qch;
    ∎ to put difficulties in sb's way créer des difficultés à qn;
    ∎ couldn't you see your way (clear) to doing it? ne trouveriez-vous pas moyen de le faire?
    ∎ the acid ate its way through the metal l'acide est passé à travers le métal;
    ∎ I fought or pushed my way through the crowd je me suis frayé un chemin à travers la foule;
    ∎ we made our way towards the train nous nous sommes dirigés vers le train;
    ∎ I made my way back to my seat je suis retourné à ma place;
    ∎ they made their way across the desert ils ont traversé le désert;
    ∎ they made their way down/up the hill ils ont descendu/monté la colline;
    ∎ she made her way up through the hierarchy elle a gravi les échelons de la hiérarchie un par un;
    ∎ she had to make her own way in the world elle a dû faire son chemin toute seule;
    ∎ she talked her way out of it elle s'en est sortie avec de belles paroles;
    ∎ he worked or made his way through the pile of newspapers il a lu les journaux un par un;
    ∎ I worked my way through college j'ai travaillé pour payer mes études;
    ∎ however did it find its way into print? comment en est-on venu à l'imprimer?
    B.
    (a) (means, method) moyen m, méthode f;
    ∎ in what way can I help you? comment ou en quoi puis-je vous être utile?;
    ∎ there are several ways to go or of going about it il y a plusieurs façons ou plusieurs moyens de s'y prendre;
    ∎ I do it this way voilà comment je fais;
    ∎ in one way or another d'une façon ou d'une autre;
    ∎ they thought they would win that way ils pensaient pouvoir gagner comme ça;
    ∎ he's going to handle it his way il va faire ça à sa façon;
    ∎ she has her own way of cooking fish elle a sa façon à elle de cuisiner le poisson;
    ∎ the right/wrong way to do it la bonne/mauvaise façon de le faire;
    ∎ you're doing it the right/wrong way c'est comme ça/ce n'est pas comme ça qu'il faut (le) faire;
    ∎ do it the usual way faites comme d'habitude;
    ∎ there's no way or I can't see any way we'll finish on time nous ne finirons jamais ou nous n'avons aucune chance de finir à temps;
    ∎ Politics ways and means financement m;
    ∎ there are ways and means il y a des moyens;
    ∎ to find a way of doing sth trouver (le) moyen de faire qch;
    ∎ humorous love will find a way l'amour finit toujours par triompher;
    ∎ that's the way to do it! c'est comme ça qu'il faut faire!, voilà comment il faut faire!;
    ∎ American familiar well done! that's the way (to go)! bravo! c'est bien!□ ;
    ∎ what a way to go! (manner of dying) quelle belle mort!; (congratulations) bravo!
    (b) (particular manner, fashion) façon f, manière f;
    ∎ in this way de cette façon;
    ∎ in a friendly way gentiment;
    ∎ he spoke in a general way about the economy il a parlé de l'économie d'une façon générale;
    ∎ she doesn't like the way he is dressed elle n'aime pas la façon dont il est habillé;
    ∎ he doesn't speak the way his family does il ne parle pas comme sa famille;
    ∎ they see things in the same way ils voient les choses de la même façon;
    ∎ in their own (small) way they fight racism à leur façon ou dans la limite de leurs moyens, ils luttent contre le racisme;
    ∎ in the same way, we note that… de même, on notera que…;
    ∎ that's one way to look at it or of looking at it c'est une façon ou manière de voir les choses;
    ∎ my way of looking at it mon point de vue sur la question;
    ∎ that's not my way (of doing things) ce n'est pas mon genre, ce n'est pas ma façon de faire;
    ∎ try to see it my way mettez-vous à ma place;
    ∎ way of speaking/writing façon de parler/d'écrire;
    ∎ to her way of thinking à son avis;
    ∎ the way she feels about him les sentiments qu'elle éprouve à son égard;
    ∎ I didn't think you would take it this way je ne pensais pas que vous le prendriez comme ça;
    ∎ if that's the way you feel about it! si c'est comme ça que vous le prenez!;
    ∎ the American way of life la manière de vivre des Américains, le mode de vie américain;
    ∎ being on the move is a way of life for the gypsy le voyage est un mode de vie pour les gitans;
    ∎ dieting has become a way of life with some people certaines personnes passent leur vie à faire des régimes;
    ∎ yearly strikes have become a way of life les grèves annuelles sont devenues une habitude
    (c) (custom) coutume f, usage m; (habitual manner of acting) manière f, habitude f;
    ∎ we soon got used to her ways nous nous sommes vite habitués à ses manières;
    ∎ I know his little ways je connais ses petites manies;
    ∎ the ways of God and men les voies de Dieu et de l'homme;
    ∎ he knows nothing of their ways il les connaît très mal, il ne les comprend pas du tout;
    ∎ she has a way of tossing her head when she laughs elle a une façon ou manière de rejeter la tête en arrière quand elle rit;
    ∎ they're happy in their own way ils sont heureux à leur manière;
    ∎ he's a genius in his way c'est un génie dans son genre;
    ∎ it's not my way to criticize ce n'est pas mon genre ou ce n'est pas dans mes habitudes de critiquer;
    ∎ he's not in a bad mood, it's just his way il n'est pas de mauvaise humeur, c'est sa façon d'être habituelle;
    ∎ she got into/out of the way of rising early elle a pris/perdu l'habitude de se lever tôt;
    ∎ you'll get into the way of it vous vous y ferez
    (d) (facility, knack)
    ∎ he has a way with children il sait (comment) s'y prendre ou il a le chic avec les enfants;
    ∎ she has a way with words elle a le chic pour s'exprimer;
    ∎ trouble has a way of showing up when least expected les ennuis ont le chic pour se manifester quand on ne s'y attend pas
    (e) (indicating a condition, state of affairs)
    ∎ let me tell you the way it was laisse-moi te raconter comment ça s'est passé;
    ∎ we can't invite him given the way things are on ne peut pas l'inviter étant donné la situation;
    ∎ we left the flat the way it was nous avons laissé l'appartement tel qu'il était ou comme il était;
    ∎ is he going to be staying here? - it looks that way est-ce qu'il va loger ici? - on dirait (bien);
    ∎ it's not the way it looks! ce n'est pas ce que vous pensez!;
    ∎ it's not the way it used to be ce n'est pas comme avant;
    ∎ that's the way things are c'est comme ça;
    ∎ that's the way of the world ainsi va le monde;
    ∎ business is good and we're trying to keep it that way les affaires vont bien et nous faisons en sorte que ça dure;
    ∎ the train is late - that's always the way le train est en retard - c'est toujours comme ça ou pareil;
    ∎ that's always the way with him il est toujours comme ça, c'est toujours comme ça avec lui;
    ∎ life goes on (in) the same old way la vie va son train ou suit son cours;
    ∎ I don't like the way things are going je n'aime pas la tournure que prennent les choses;
    ∎ we'll never finish the way things are going au train où vont les choses, on n'aura jamais fini;
    ∎ to be in a bad way être en mauvais état;
    ∎ he's in a bad way il est dans un triste état;
    ∎ their business is in a bad/good way leurs affaires marchent mal/bien;
    ∎ she's in a fair way to succeed/to becoming president elle est bien partie pour réussir/pour devenir président
    (f) (respect, detail) égard m, rapport m;
    ∎ in what way? à quel égard?, sous quel rapport?;
    ∎ in this way à cet égard, sous ce rapport;
    ∎ it's important in many ways c'est important à bien des égards;
    ∎ in some ways à certains égards, par certains côtés;
    ∎ the job suits her in every way le poste lui convient à tous égards ou à tous points de vue;
    ∎ I'll help you in every possible way je ferai tout ce que je peux pour vous aider;
    ∎ she studied the problem in every way possible elle a examiné le problème sous tous les angles possibles;
    ∎ useful in more ways than one utile à plus d'un égard;
    ∎ these two books, each interesting in its (own) way ces deux livres, qui sont intéressants chacun dans son genre;
    ∎ he's clever that way sur ce plan-là, il est malin;
    ∎ in one way d'un certain point de vue;
    ∎ in a way you're right en un sens vous avez raison;
    ∎ I see what you mean in a way d'un certain point de vue ou d'une certaine manière, je vois ce que tu veux dire;
    ∎ I am in no way responsible je ne suis absolument pas ou aucunement responsable;
    ∎ this in no way changes your situation ceci ne change en rien votre situation;
    ∎ without wanting in any way to criticize sans vouloir le moins du monde critiquer
    ∎ to do things in a big way faire les choses en grand;
    ∎ she went into politics in a big way elle s'est lancée à fond dans la politique;
    ∎ they're in the arms business in a big way ils font de grosses affaires dans l'armement;
    ∎ they helped out in a big way ils ont beaucoup aidé;
    ∎ a grocer in a big/small way un gros/petit épicier;
    ∎ we live in a small way nous vivons modestement;
    ∎ the restaurant is doing quite well in a small way le restaurant marche bien à son échelle;
    ∎ it does change the situation in a small way ça change quand même un peu la situation
    (h) (usu pl) (part, share) we divided the money four ways nous avons partagé l'argent en quatre;
    ∎ the committee was split three ways le comité était divisé en trois groupes
    ∎ we're gathering/losing way nous prenons/perdons de la vitesse;
    ∎ the ship has way on le navire a de l'erre
    ∎ she always gets or has her (own) way elle arrive toujours à ses fins;
    ∎ he only wants it his way il n'en fait qu'à sa tête;
    ∎ I'm not going to let you have it all your (own) way je refuse de te céder en tout;
    ∎ if I had my way, he'd be in prison si cela ne tenait qu'à moi, il serait en prison;
    ∎ I refuse to go - have it your (own) way je refuse d'y aller - fais ce que ou comme tu veux;
    ∎ no, it was 1789 - have it your (own) way non, c'était en 1789 - soit;
    ∎ you can't have it both ways il faut choisir;
    ∎ I can stop too, it works both ways je peux m'arrêter aussi, ça marche dans les deux sens;
    ∎ there are no two ways about it il n'y a pas le choix;
    ∎ no two ways about it, he was rude il n'y a pas à dire, il a été grossier;
    ∎ humorous to have one's (wicked) way with sb coucher avec qn
    (a) (far → in space, time) très loin□ ;
    ∎ they live way over yonder ils habitent très loin par là-bas;
    ∎ way up the mountain très haut dans la montagne□ ;
    ∎ way down south là-bas dans le sud□ ;
    ∎ way back in the distance au loin derrière□ ;
    ∎ way back in the 1930s déjà dans les années 30□
    ∎ we know each other from way back, we go way back nous sommes amis depuis très longtemps□ ;
    ∎ you're way below the standard tu es bien en-dessous du niveau voulu□ ;
    ∎ he's way over forty il a largement dépassé la quarantaine□ ;
    ∎ she's way ahead of her class elle est très en avance sur sa classe□ ;
    ∎ he's way off or out in his guess il est loin d'avoir deviné□
    (c) (very) vachement;
    ∎ he is way crazy il est vachement atteint
    ∎ the baby cried all the way le bébé a pleuré tout le long du chemin;
    ∎ don't close the curtains all the way ne fermez pas complètement les rideaux;
    ∎ prices go all the way from 200 to 1,000 dollars les prix vont de 200 à 1000 dollars;
    ∎ figurative I'm with you all the way je vous suis ou je vous soutiens jusqu'au bout;
    ∎ familiar to go all the way (with sb) aller jusqu'au bout (avec qn)
    en route;
    ∎ I stopped several times along the way je me suis arrêté plusieurs fois en (cours de) route;
    ∎ figurative their project had some problems along the way leur projet a connu quelques problèmes en cours de route
    ∎ I prefer chess by a long way je préfère de loin ou de beaucoup les échecs;
    ∎ this is bigger by a long way c'est nettement ou beaucoup plus grand;
    ∎ he's not as capable as you are by a long way il est loin d'être aussi compétent que toi;
    ∎ is your project ready? - not by a long way! ton projet est-il prêt? - loin de là!
    (incidentally) à propos;
    ∎ by the way, where did he go? à propos, où est-il allé?;
    ∎ by the way, her brother sings much better soit dit en passant, son frère chante beaucoup mieux;
    ∎ I bring up this point by the way je signale ce point au passage ou en passant
    (incidental) secondaire;
    ∎ that point is quite by the way ce détail est tout à fait secondaire
    (a) (via) par, via;
    ∎ to go by way of Brussels passer par Bruxelles
    ∎ by way of illustration à titre d'exemple;
    ∎ she outlined the situation by way of introduction elle a présenté un aperçu de la situation en guise d'introduction;
    ∎ by way of introducing himself, he gave us his card en guise de présentation, il nous a donné sa carte;
    ∎ they receive money by way of grants ils reçoivent de l'argent sous forme de bourses
    (a) (in either case) dans les deux cas;
    ∎ either way I lose dans les deux cas, je suis perdant;
    ∎ shall we take the car or the bus? - it's fine by me or I don't mind either way tu préfères prendre la voiture ou le bus? - n'importe, ça m'est égal
    (b) (more or less) en plus ou en moins;
    ∎ a few days either way could make all the difference quelques jours en plus ou en moins pourraient tout changer
    ∎ the match could have gone either way le match était ouvert;
    de façon à ce que;
    ∎ she answered in such a way as to make me understand elle a répondu de façon à ce que je comprenne
    de telle façon ou manière que
    ∎ she receives little in the way of salary son salaire n'est pas bien gros;
    ∎ what is there in the way of food? qu'est-ce qu'il y a à manger?;
    ∎ do you need anything in the way of paper? avez-vous besoin de papier?;
    ∎ he doesn't have much in the way of brains il n'a rien dans la tête
    ∎ we met in the way of business nous nous sommes rencontrés dans le cadre du travail;
    ∎ they put me in the way of making some money ils m'ont indiqué un moyen de gagner de l'argent
    familiar pas question;
    ∎ will you do it for me? - no way! tu feras ça pour moi? - pas question!;
    ∎ no way am I going to tell him! (il n'est) pas question que je le lui dise!;
    ∎ there's no way that's Jeanne Moreau! tu rigoles?, ce n'est pas Jeanne Moreau!
    ∎ it's on my way c'est sur mon chemin;
    ∎ you pass it on your way to the office vous passez devant en allant au bureau;
    ∎ I'll catch up with you on the way je te rattraperai en chemin ou en route;
    ∎ to stop on the way s'arrêter en chemin;
    ∎ on the way to work en allant au bureau;
    ∎ I'm on my way! j'y vais!;
    ∎ she's on her way home elle rentre chez elle;
    ∎ he's on his way to Paris il est en route pour Paris;
    ∎ on his way to town he met his father en allant en ville, il a rencontré son père;
    ∎ we must be on our way il faut que nous y allions;
    ∎ to go one's way repartir, reprendre son chemin
    ∎ she has a baby on the way elle attend un bébé;
    ∎ her second book is on the way (being written) elle a presque fini d'écrire son deuxième livre; (being published) son deuxième livre est sur le point de paraître;
    ∎ she's on the way to success elle est sur le chemin de la réussite;
    ∎ the patient is on the way to recovery le malade est en voie de guérison;
    ∎ she's (well) on the way to becoming president elle est en bonne voie de devenir président;
    ∎ the new school is well on the way to being finished la nouvelle école est presque terminée
    en fin de compte;
    ∎ I've done quite well for myself one way and another je me suis plutôt bien débrouillé en fin de compte
    (a) (by whatever means) d'une façon ou d'une autre;
    ∎ one way or the other I'm going to get that job! d'une façon ou d'une autre, j'aurai ce boulot!
    ∎ I've nothing to say one way or the other je n'ai rien à dire, ni pour ni contre;
    ∎ a month one way or the other un mois de plus ou de moins
    ∎ to go out of one's way s'écarter de son chemin, dévier de sa route, faire un détour;
    ∎ I don't want to take you out of your way je ne veux pas vous faire faire un détour;
    ∎ figurative don't go out of your way for me! ne vous dérangez pas pour moi!;
    ∎ figurative she went out of her way to find me a job elle s'est donné du mal pour me trouver du travail
    ∎ to be under way (person, vehicle) être en route; figurative (meeting, talks) être en cours; (plans, project) être en train;
    ∎ the meeting was already under way la réunion avait déjà commencé;
    ∎ the project is well under way le projet est en bonne voie de réalisation;
    ∎ Nautical the ship is under way le navire est en route
    ∎ to get under way (person, train) se mettre en route, partir; (car) se mettre en route, démarrer; figurative (meeting, plans, talks) démarrer;
    ∎ they got the plans under way ils ont mis le projet en route;
    ∎ the captain got (the ship) under way le capitaine a appareillé;
    ∎ the ship got under way le navire a appareillé ou a levé l'ancre
    ►► American way station Railways petite gare f; figurative étape f;
    ∎ a way station on the road to success une étape sur la route du succès
    ✾ Play 'The Way of the World' Congreve 'Ainsi va le monde'
    ⓘ We have ways of making you talk Il s'agit de la formule prononcée par les membres de la Gestapo dans les films de guerre anglais des années 50 et 60 lorsqu'ils interrogent des prisonniers de guerre britanniques. Aujourd'hui, on emploie cette expression ("nous avons les moyens de vous faire parler") pour plaisanter en prenant l'accent allemand lorsqu'on veut obtenir une information de quelqu'un.

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > way

  • 9 fall

    1. noun
    1) (act or manner of falling) Fallen, das; (of person) Sturz, der

    fall of snow/rain — Schnee-/Regenfall, der

    2) (collapse, defeat) Fall, der; (of dynasty, empire) Untergang, der; (of government) Sturz, der
    3) (slope) Abfall, der (to zu, nach)
    4) (Amer.): (autumn) Herbst, der
    2. intransitive verb,
    1) fallen; [Person:] [hin]fallen, stürzen; [Pferd:] stürzen

    fall off something, fall down from something — von etwas [herunter]fallen

    fall down [into] something — in etwas (Akk.) [hinein]fallen

    fall down dead — tot umfallen

    fall down the stairs — die Treppe herunter-/hinunterfallen

    fall [flat] on one's face — (lit. or fig.) auf die Nase fallen (ugs.)

    fall into the trap — in die Falle gehen

    fall from a great height — aus großer Höhe abstürzen

    rain/snow is falling — es regnet/schneit

    2) (fig.) [Nacht, Dunkelheit:] hereinbrechen; [Abend:] anbrechen; [Stille:] eintreten
    3) (fig.): (be uttered) fallen
    4) (become detached) [Blätter:] [ab]fallen

    fall out — [Haare, Federn:] ausfallen

    5) (sink to lower level) sinken; [Barometer:] fallen; [Absatz, Verkauf:] zurückgehen

    fall into sin/temptation — eine Sünde begehen/der Versuchung er- od. unterliegen

    6) (subside) [Wasserspiegel, Gezeitenhöhe:] fallen; [Wind:] sich legen
    7) (show dismay)

    his/her face fell — er/sie machte ein langes Gesicht (ugs.)

    8) (be defeated) [Festung, Stadt:] fallen; [Monarchie, Regierung:] gestürzt werden; [Reich:] untergehen
    9) (perish) [Soldat:] fallen
    10) (collapse, break) einstürzen

    fall to pieces, fall apart — [Buch, Wagen:] auseinander fallen

    fall apart at the seams — an den Nähten aufplatzen

    11) (come by chance, duty, etc.) fallen (to an + Akk.)

    it fell to me or to my lot to do it — das Los, es tun zu müssen, hat mich getroffen

    fall into decay — [Gebäude:] verfallen

    fall into a swoon or faint — in Ohnmacht fallen

    12) [Auge, Strahl, Licht, Schatten:] fallen ( upon auf + Akk.)
    13) (have specified place) liegen (on, to auf + Dat., within in + Dat.)

    fall into or under a category — in od. unter eine Kategorie fallen

    14) (occur) fallen (on auf + Akk.)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/26285/fall_about">fall about
    * * *
    [fo:l] 1. past tense - fell; verb
    1) (to go down from a higher level usually unintentionally: The apple fell from the tree; Her eye fell on an old book.) fallen
    2) ((often with over) to go down to the ground etc from an upright position, usually by accident: She fell (over).) fallen
    3) (to become lower or less: The temperature is falling.) fallen
    4) (to happen or occur: Easter falls early this year.) stattfinden
    5) (to enter a certain state or condition: She fell asleep; They fell in love.) fallen
    6) ((formal: only with it as subject) to come as one's duty etc: It falls to me to take care of the children.) überlassen bleiben
    2. noun
    1) (the act of falling: He had a fall.) der Sturz
    2) ((a quantity of) something that has fallen: a fall of snow.) der Fall
    3) (capture or (political) defeat: the fall of Rome.) der Fall
    4) ((American) the autumn: Leaves change colour in the fall.) der Herbst
    •
    - falls
    - fallout
    - his
    - her face fell
    - fall away
    - fall back
    - fall back on
    - fall behind
    - fall down
    - fall flat
    - fall for
    - fall in with
    - fall off
    - fall on/upon
    - fall out
    - fall short
    - fall through
    * * *
    [fɔ:l, AM esp fɑ:l]
    I. NOUN
    1. (tumble, drop) Fall m; (harder) Sturz m
    she broke her leg in the \fall sie brach sich bei dem Sturz das Bein
    to break sb's \fall jds Sturz abfangen
    to have a \fall hinfallen; (harder) stürzen
    to take a \fall stürzen; (from a horse) vom Pferd fallen
    to have [or take] a nasty \fall schwer stürzen
    2. no pl (descent) Fallen nt; of leaves Herabfallen nt geh; (drop) of an axe, a guillotine Herunterfallen nt; of a level also [Ab]sinken nt
    the audience roared at the \fall of the curtain das Publikum brüllte, als der Vorhang fiel
    at the \fall of the tide bei Ebbe f
    the rise and \fall of the tide Ebbe und Flut
    3. METEO, GEOG
    \fall of earth Erdrutsch m
    [heavy] \falls of rain/snow [heftige] Regen-/Schneefälle
    \fall of rock Steinschlag m
    4. SPORT (in wrestling) Schultersieg m
    5. no pl (slope) Gefälle nt
    6. no pl (decrease) Rückgang m (in + gen); in support Nachlassen nt (in + gen); in a level also Sinken nt (in + gen)
    there was a \fall in support for his party at the last election die Unterstützung für seine Partei hat bei den letzten Wahlen nachgelassen
    \fall in demand/price/temperature Nachfrage-/Preis-/Temperaturrückgang m
    there has been a slight \fall in the price of petrol der Benzinpreis ist leicht zurückgegangen
    sudden \fall in price Preissturz m
    \fall in pressure Druckabfall m
    \fall in moral standards Verfall m der Sitten
    a sharp \fall in temperature ein Temperaturabfall m, ein Temperatursturz m
    \fall in value Wertverlust m
    7. no pl (defeat) of a city Einnahme f; of a dictator, regime Sturz m
    the \fall of the Berlin Wall/Iron Curtain der Fall der Berliner Mauer/des Eisernen Vorhangs
    the \fall of Constantinople die Eroberung Konstantinopels
    the \fall of the Roman Empire der Untergang des Römischen Reiches
    \fall from power Entmachtung f
    ▪ the F\fall [of Man] der Sündenfall
    9. AM (autumn) Herbst m
    10. (waterfall)
    ▪ \falls pl Wasserfall m
    [the] Victoria F\falls die Viktoriafälle
    11.
    ▶ to be as innocent as Adam before the F\fall ( saying) so unschuldig sein wie Adam vor dem Sündenfall
    ▶ to take a [or the] \fall for sb/sth AM ( fam) für jdn/etw die Schuld auf sich akk nehmen, für jdn/etw einstehen
    AM (sun, weather) Herbst-
    \fall clothing Herbstkleidung f
    \fall collection Herbstkollektion f
    \fall plowing Wintersaat f
    <fell, fallen>
    1. (drop, tumble) fallen; (harder) stürzen; (topple) person hinfallen; (harder) stürzen; tree, post, pillar umfallen; (harder) umstürzen
    he fell badly and broke his arm er stürzte schwer und brach sich den Arm
    the bridge fell into the river die Brücke stürzte ins Wasser
    her horse fell at a fence ihr Pferd blieb an einem Hindernis hängen
    the bomb fell on the church and totally destroyed it die Bombe fiel auf die Kirche und zerstörte sie vollständig
    the picture's \fallen behind the piano das Bild ist hinter das Klavier gefallen
    to \fall into sb's/each other's arms jdm/sich in die Arme fallen
    to \fall into bed ins Bett fallen
    to \fall under a bus/train unter einen Bus/Zug geraten
    to \fall to one's death in den Tod stürzen
    to \fall flat on one's face aufs Gesicht [o fam auf die Nase] fallen
    to \fall on the floor/to the ground auf den Boden fallen
    to \fall to one's knees auf die Knie fallen
    to \fall down dead tot umfallen
    2. (hang) fallen
    to \fall loosely locker fallen
    ▪ to \fall around/on/to sth auf etw akk fallen [o geh herabhängen]
    his hair fell around his shoulders in golden curls sein Haar fiel ihm in goldenen Locken auf die Schulter
    her hair fell to her waist ihr Haar reichte ihr bis zur Taille
    ▪ to \fall into sth in etw akk fallen
    a curl/a strand of hair fell into her face eine Locke/Strähne fiel ihr ins Gesicht
    3. (descend) fallen; light, shadow
    ▪ to \fall across/on/over sth auf etw akk fallen; blow, weapon
    ▪ to \fall on sb/sth jdn/etw treffen; ( fig) darkness, night hereinbrechen; ( fig) silence
    ▪ to \fall on sb/sth jdn/etw überfallen
    the audience was still laughing as the curtain fell als der Vorhang fiel, lachte das Publikum immer noch
    the snow had been \falling all day es hatte den ganzen Tag über geschneit
    more rain had \fallen overnight über Nacht hatte es noch mehr geregnet
    darkness \falls early in the tropics in den Tropen wird es früh dunkel
    night was already \falling es begann bereits dunkel zu werden
    the blows continued to \fall on him die Schläge prasselten weiter auf ihn nieder
    the axe looks likely to \fall on 500 jobs 500 Stellen werden wahrscheinlich gestrichen werden
    silence fell on the group of men [ein] Schweigen überfiel die Männer
    4. (slope) [steil] abfallen
    5. (decrease) sinken; price, temperature, pressure, value also fallen; demand, sales, numbers also zurückgehen; ( fig) barometer fallen
    water supplies have \fallen to danger levels der Wasservorrat ist auf einen gefährlich niedrigen Stand abgesunken
    the attendance fell well below the expected figure die Besucherzahlen blieben weit hinter den erwarteten Zahlen zurück
    church attendance has \fallen dramatically die Anzahl der Kirchenbesucher ist drastisch zurückgegangen [o gesunken]
    \falling prices pl Preisrückgang m
    6. (be defeated) government, regime, politician gestürzt werden; empire untergehen; city, town eingenommen werden, fallen
    to \fall from power seines Amtes enthoben werden
    ▪ to \fall to sb jdm in die Hände fallen
    Basildon finally fell to Labour at the last election Basildon fiel in der letzten Wahl Labour zu
    7. (lose a position, status) fallen
    to \fall in the charts/the table in den Charts/der Tabelle fallen
    to have \fallen to the bottom of the league table ganz unten in der Tabelle stehen
    to \fall in sb's estimation in jds Achtung sinken
    8. (fail)
    to stand or \fall on sth mit etw dat stehen und fallen
    the proposal will stand or \fall on the possible tax breaks der Vorschlag wird mit den zu erwartenden Steuervergünstigungen stehen und fallen
    9. ( liter: die in a battle) fallen
    10. (be) liegen
    Easter \falls early/late this year Ostern ist dieses Jahr früh/spät
    this year, my birthday \falls on a Monday diese Jahr fällt mein Geburtstag auf einen Montag
    the accent \falls on the second syllable der Akzent liegt auf der zweiten Silbe
    11. (belong)
    ▪ to \fall into sth in etw akk fallen
    to \fall into a category/class in [o unter] eine Kategorie/Klasse fallen
    ▪ to \fall outside sth nicht in etw akk fallen
    this matter \falls outside the area for which we are responsible diese Sache fällt nicht in unseren Zuständigkeitsbereich
    ▪ to \fall under sth in etw akk fallen
    that side of the business \falls under my department dieser Geschäftsteil fällt in meinen Zuständigkeitsbereich
    that \falls under the heading... das fällt unter die Rubrik...
    ▪ to \fall within sth in etw akk fallen
    any offence committed in this state \falls within the jurisdiction of this court jedes Vergehen, das in diesem Staat begangen wird, fällt in den Zuständigkeitsbereich dieses Gerichts
    12. (be divided)
    ▪ to \fall into sth sich in etw akk gliedern
    the text \falls into three sections der Text gliedert sich in drei Kategorien
    to \fall prey [or victim] to sb/sth jdm/etw zum Opfer fallen
    to \fall asleep einschlafen
    to \fall due fällig sein
    to \fall foul of sb mit jdm Streit bekommen
    to \fall foul of a law [or regulation] ein Gesetz übertreten
    to \fall ill [or sick] krank werden
    to \fall open aufklappen
    to \fall silent verstummen
    to \fall vacant frei werden
    14. (enter a particular state)
    to \fall into debt sich akk verschulden
    to \fall into disrepair [or decay] verkommen
    to \fall into disrepute in Misskredit geraten
    to \fall into disuse nicht mehr benutzt werden
    to \fall into error/sin REL sich akk versündigen
    to \fall out of favour [or AM favor] [with sb] [bei jdm] nicht mehr gefragt sein
    to \fall into the habit of doing sth sich dat angewöhnen, etw zu tun
    to \fall into hysterics sich akk vor Lachen kringeln fam
    to \fall under the influence of sb/sth unter den Einfluss einer Person/einer S. gen geraten
    to \fall in love [with sb/sth] sich akk [in jdn/etw] verlieben
    to \fall out of love [with sb/sth] nicht mehr [in jdn/etw] verliebt sein
    to \fall into a reflective mood ins Grübeln kommen
    to have \fallen under the spell of sb/sth von jdm/etw verzaubert sein
    15.
    ▶ to \fall on deaf ears auf taube Ohren stoßen
    ▶ to \fall out of one's dress ( fam) aus allen Wolken fallen fam
    ▶ sb's face fell jd machte ein langes Gesicht
    ▶ to \fall into the hands [or clutches] of sb jdm in die Hände fallen
    ▶ to \fall on hard times harte Zeiten durchleben
    ▶ to \fall in [or into] line [with sth] sich akk [etw dat] anpassen
    ▶ to \fall to pieces plan, relationship in die Brüche gehen; person zerbrechen
    ▶ to \fall into place (work out) sich akk von selbst ergeben; (make sense) einen Sinn ergeben, [einen] Sinn machen fam
    ▶ to \fall short [of sth] etw nicht erreichen
    ▶ to \fall short of sb's expectations hinter jds Erwartungen zurückbleiben
    ▶ to \fall on stony ground auf felsigen Grund fallen liter
    ▶ to \fall among thieves ( old) unter die Räuber fallen veraltet
    ▶ to \fall into a/sb's trap in die/jdm in die Falle gehen
    I was afraid that I might be \falling into a trap ich hatte Angst, in eine Falle zu laufen
    they fell into the trap of overestimating their own ability sie haben ihre eigenen Fähigkeiten völlig überschätzt
    ▶ to \fall to a whisper in einen Flüsterton verfallen
    * * *
    [fɔːl] vb: pret fell, ptp fallen
    1. n
    1) (lit, fig: tumble) Fall m no pl, Sturz m; (= decline of empire etc) Untergang m

    to have a fall — (hin)fallen, stürzen

    2) (= defeat of town, fortress etc) Einnahme f, Eroberung f; (of Troy) Fall m; (of country) Zusammenbruch m; (of government) Sturz m
    3)

    fall of rain/snow — Regen-/Schneefall m

    4) (of night) Einbruch m
    5) (= lowering) Sinken nt; (in temperature) Abfall m, Sinken nt; (sudden) Sturz m; (of barometer) Fallen nt; (sudden) Sturz m; (in wind) Nachlassen nt; (in revs, population, membership) Abnahme f; (in graph) Abfall m; (in morals) Verfall m; (of prices, currency, gradual) Sinken nt; (sudden) Sturz m
    6) (= slope of roof, ground) Gefälle nt; (steeper) Abfall m
    7) (= waterfall also falls) Wasserfall m
    8) (WRESTLING) Schultersieg m
    9) (= hang of curtains etc) Fall m
    10) (US: autumn) Herbst m

    in the fall — im Herbst

    2. vi
    1) (lit, fig: tumble) fallen; (SPORT, from a height, badly) stürzen; (object, to the ground) herunterfallen
    2) (= hang down hair, clothes etc) fallen
    3) (snow, rain) fallen
    4) (= drop temperature, price) fallen, sinken; (population, membership etc) abnehmen; (voice) sich senken; (wind) sich legen, nachlassen; (land) abfallen; (graph, curve, rate) abnehmen; (steeply) abfallen
    5) (= be defeated country) eingenommen werden; (city, fortress) fallen, erobert or eingenommen werden; (government, ruler) gestürzt werden

    to fall to the enemy — vom Feind eingenommen werden; (fortress, town also) vom Feind erobert werden

    6) (= be killed) fallen
    7) (night) hereinbrechen; (silence) eintreten
    8) (BIBL) den Sündenfall tun; (old, girl) die Unschuld or Ehre verlieren (dated)
    9) (= occur birthday, Easter etc) fallen (on auf +acc); (accent) liegen (on auf +dat); (= be classified) gehören (under in +acc), fallen (under unter +acc)

    that falls within/outside the scope of... — das fällt in/nicht in den Bereich +gen..., das liegt innerhalb/außerhalb des Bereichs +gen...

    10) (= be naturally divisible) zerfallen, sich gliedern (into in +acc)
    11) (fig)

    where do you think the responsibility/blame for that will fall? — wem wird Ihrer Meinung nach die Verantwortung dafür/die Schuld daran gegeben?

    12) (= become) werden

    to fall ill — krank werden, erkranken (geh)

    to fall out of love with sb — aufhören, jdn zu lieben

    13)

    (= pass into a certain state) to fall into decline (building) — verkommen; (economy) schlechter werden

    to fall into a state of unconsciousness — das Bewusstsein verlieren, in Ohnmacht fallen

    to fall apart or to pieces (chairs, cars, book etc) — aus dem Leim gehen (inf); (clothes, curtains) sich in Wohlgefallen auflösen (inf); (house) verfallen; (system, company, sb's life) aus den Fugen geraten or gehen

    I fell apart when he left me — meine Welt brach zusammen, als er mich verließ

    14)

    (in set constructions see also n, adj etc) to fall into the hands of sb —

    * * *
    fall [fɔːl]
    A s
    1. Fall m, Sturz m, Fallen n:
    fall from ( oder out of) the window Sturz aus dem Fenster;
    have a bad ( oder heavy) fall schwer stürzen;
    a) verwegen reiten,
    b) auch head for a fall fig das Schicksal oder Unheil herausfordern, ins Unglück rennen;
    take the fall for sb umg für jemanden den Kopf hinhalten
    2. a) (Ab)Fallen n (der Blätter etc)
    b) besonders US Herbst m:
    in fall im Herbst;
    fall weather Herbstwetter n
    3. Fall m, Herabfallen n, Faltenwurf m (von Stoff)
    4. Fallen n (des Vorhangs)
    5. TECH Niedergang m (des Kolbens etc)
    6. Zusammenfallen n, Einsturz m (eines Gebäudes)
    7. PHYS
    a) → free fall
    b) Fallhöhe f, -strecke f
    8. a) (Regen-, Schnee) Fall m
    b) Regen-, Schnee-, Niederschlagsmenge f
    9. Fallen n, Sinken n (der Flut, Temperatur etc):
    fall in demand WIRTSCH Nachfragerückgang m;
    ( heavy oder sudden) fall in prices Preis-, Kurssturz m;
    speculate for a fall auf Baisse oder à la baisse spekulieren; → operate A 4
    10. Abfall(en) m(n), Gefälle n, Neigung f (des Geländes):
    a sharp fall ein starkes Gefälle
    11. (Wasser) Fall m:
    12. An-, Einbruch m (der Nacht etc)
    13. Fall m, Sturz m, Nieder-, Untergang m, Verfall m, Ende n:
    the fall of Troy der Fall von Troja;
    fall of life fig Herbst m des Lebens
    14. a) (moralischer) Verfall
    b) Fall m, Fehltritt m:
    the Fall, the fall of man BIBEL der (erste) Sündenfall
    15. JAGD
    a) Fall m, Tod m (von Wild)
    b) Falle f
    16. AGR, ZOOL Wurf m (Lämmer etc)
    17. Ringen: Niederwurf m:
    win by fall Schultersieg m;
    try a fall with sb fig sich mit jemandem messen
    B v/i prät fell [fel], pperf fallen [ˈfɔːlən]
    1. fallen:
    the curtain falls der Vorhang fällt
    2. (ab)fallen (Blätter etc)
    3. (herunter)fallen, abstürzen:
    he fell to his death er stürzte tödlich ab
    4. (um-, hin-, nieder)fallen, stürzen, zu Fall kommen, zu Boden fallen (Person):
    he fell badly ( oder heavily) er stürzte schwer; → flat1 C 1
    5. umfallen, -stürzen (Baum etc)
    6. (in Locken oder Falten etc) (herab)fallen
    7. fig fallen:
    a) (im Krieg) umkommen
    b) erobert werden (Stadt)
    c) gestürzt werden (Regierung)
    d) (moralisch) sinken
    e) die Unschuld verlieren, einen Fehltritt begehen (Frau)
    f) SPORT gebrochen werden (Rekord etc)
    8. fig fallen, sinken (Flut, Preis, Temperatur etc):
    the temperature has fallen (by) 10 degrees die Temperatur ist um 10 Grad gesunken;
    the wind falls der Wind legt sich oder lässt nach;
    his courage fell sein Mut sank;
    his voice (eyes) fell er senkte die Stimme (den Blick);
    his face fell er machte ein langes Gesicht;
    falling visitor numbers zurückgehende Besucherzahlen; → birthrate
    9. abfallen (toward[s] zu … hin) (Gelände etc)
    10. auch fall apart zerfallen:
    fall apart ( oder asunder, in two) auseinanderfallen, entzweigehen; → piece A 2
    11. (zeitlich) eintreten, fallen:
    Easter falls late this year Ostern ist oder fällt oder liegt dieses Jahr spät
    12. sich ereignen
    13. hereinbrechen (Nacht etc)
    14. fig fallen (Worte etc):
    the remark fell from him er ließ die Bemerkung fallen
    15. krank, fällig etc werden:
    fall heir to sth etwas erben
    * * *
    1. noun
    1) (act or manner of falling) Fallen, das; (of person) Sturz, der

    fall of snow/rain — Schnee-/Regenfall, der

    2) (collapse, defeat) Fall, der; (of dynasty, empire) Untergang, der; (of government) Sturz, der
    3) (slope) Abfall, der (to zu, nach)
    4) (Amer.): (autumn) Herbst, der
    2. intransitive verb,
    1) fallen; [Person:] [hin]fallen, stürzen; [Pferd:] stürzen

    fall off something, fall down from something — von etwas [herunter]fallen

    fall down [into] something — in etwas (Akk.) [hinein]fallen

    fall down the stairs — die Treppe herunter-/hinunterfallen

    fall [flat] on one's face — (lit. or fig.) auf die Nase fallen (ugs.)

    rain/snow is falling — es regnet/schneit

    2) (fig.) [Nacht, Dunkelheit:] hereinbrechen; [Abend:] anbrechen; [Stille:] eintreten
    3) (fig.): (be uttered) fallen
    4) (become detached) [Blätter:] [ab]fallen

    fall out — [Haare, Federn:] ausfallen

    5) (sink to lower level) sinken; [Barometer:] fallen; [Absatz, Verkauf:] zurückgehen

    fall into sin/temptation — eine Sünde begehen/der Versuchung er- od. unterliegen

    6) (subside) [Wasserspiegel, Gezeitenhöhe:] fallen; [Wind:] sich legen

    his/her face fell — er/sie machte ein langes Gesicht (ugs.)

    8) (be defeated) [Festung, Stadt:] fallen; [Monarchie, Regierung:] gestürzt werden; [Reich:] untergehen
    9) (perish) [Soldat:] fallen
    10) (collapse, break) einstürzen

    fall to pieces, fall apart — [Buch, Wagen:] auseinander fallen

    11) (come by chance, duty, etc.) fallen (to an + Akk.)

    it fell to me or to my lot to do it — das Los, es tun zu müssen, hat mich getroffen

    fall into decay — [Gebäude:] verfallen

    fall into a swoon or faint — in Ohnmacht fallen

    12) [Auge, Strahl, Licht, Schatten:] fallen ( upon auf + Akk.)
    13) (have specified place) liegen (on, to auf + Dat., within in + Dat.)

    fall into or under a category — in od. unter eine Kategorie fallen

    14) (occur) fallen (on auf + Akk.)
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    (US) n.
    Herbst -e m. (of a regime, society) n.
    Verfall -¨e m. n.
    Fall ¨-e m.
    Sturz ¨-e m. v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: fell, fallen)
    = absinken v.
    fallen v.
    (§ p.,pp.: fiel, ist gefallen)
    purzeln v.
    stürzen v.

    English-german dictionary > fall

  • 10 Christian Democratic Party

       Established originally as the Centro Democático e Social (CDS) in May 1974, following the fall of the Estado Novo, the CDS was supported by conservatives inspired by Christian humanism and Catholic social doctrines. In the first democratic elections after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, which were held on 25 April 1975, the CDS won only a disappointing 7.6 percent of the vote for the Constituent Assembly. In the following general elections for the Assembly of the Republic, in April 1976, however, the party more than doubled its votes to 16 percent and surpassed the number of votes for the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP). In 1979-80, the Christian Democrats joined the Social Democratic Party (PSD) in a coalition called the Aliança Democrática (Democratic Alliance), a grouping that defeated the Socialist Party (PS) in the succeeding elections. The Christian Democrats remained in the background as the principal party rivals for power were the PS and the PSD.
       In the 1990s, the CDS altered its name to the Partido Popular (PP) and featured new leaders such as party chief Paulo Portas. While the democratic Portuguese system had become virtually a two-party dominant system by the 1980s and 1990s, the PP would have opportunities, depending upon circumstances, to share power in another coalition with one of the two larger, major parties, the PS or PSD. Indeed, parliamentary election results in March 2002 gave the party just such an opportunity, as the PP won 14 percent of the vote, thus surpassing for the first time since the 1975 elections the PCP, which was reduced to 12 percent of the vote. The PP thus gained new influence as the PSD, which won the largest number of seats in this election, was obliged to share governance with the PP in order to have a working majority in the legislature.
       Various right-wing lobbies and interest groups influenced the PP. In early 2000, the PP proposed a law to the Assembly of the Republic whereby former colonists, now mainly resident in Portugal, who had lost property in Portugal's former colonies of Angola and Mozambique, would be compensated by Portugal for material losses during decolonization. The PP leadership argued that the manner in which the governments after the Revolution of 25 April 1974 administered the disputed, controversial decolonization process in these territories made the government responsible for compensating Portuguese citizens for such losses. The PS-dominated government of then prime minister, Antônio Guterres, argued, however, that independent governments of those former colonies were responsible for any compensation due. Thus, Guterres declined to accept the proposed legislation. This proposal by the PP and others like it followed upon other proposed laws such as Law 20, 19 June 1997, put before the Assembly of the Republic, which was passed under the aegis of the PS. This law pledged to compensate opposition militants (the survivors) who had opposed the Estado Novo and had spent years in exile, as well as in clandestine activities. Such compensations would come in the form of pensions and social security benefits. Given the strength of conservative constituencies and former settlers' lobbies, it is likely that the Christian Democrats will introduce more such proposed laws in future parliamentary sessions.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Christian Democratic Party

  • 11 Philosophy

       And what I believe to be more important here is that I find in myself an infinity of ideas of certain things which cannot be assumed to be pure nothingness, even though they may have perhaps no existence outside of my thought. These things are not figments of my imagination, even though it is within my power to think of them or not to think of them; on the contrary, they have their own true and immutable natures. Thus, for example, when I imagine a triangle, even though there may perhaps be no such figure anywhere in the world outside of my thought, nor ever have been, nevertheless the figure cannot help having a certain determinate nature... or essence, which is immutable and eternal, which I have not invented and which does not in any way depend upon my mind. (Descartes, 1951, p. 61)
       Let us console ourselves for not knowing the possible connections between a spider and the rings of Saturn, and continue to examine what is within our reach. (Voltaire, 1961, p. 144)
       As modern physics started with the Newtonian revolution, so modern philosophy starts with what one might call the Cartesian Catastrophe. The catastrophe consisted in the splitting up of the world into the realms of matter and mind, and the identification of "mind" with conscious thinking. The result of this identification was the shallow rationalism of l'esprit Cartesien, and an impoverishment of psychology which it took three centuries to remedy even in part. (Koestler, 1964, p. 148)
       It has been made of late a reproach against natural philosophy that it has struck out on a path of its own, and has separated itself more and more widely from the other sciences which are united by common philological and historical studies. The opposition has, in fact, been long apparent, and seems to me to have grown up mainly under the influence of the Hegelian philosophy, or, at any rate, to have been brought out into more distinct relief by that philosophy.... The sole object of Kant's "Critical Philosophy" was to test the sources and the authority of our knowledge, and to fix a definite scope and standard for the researches of philosophy, as compared with other sciences.... [But Hegel's] "Philosophy of Identity" was bolder. It started with the hypothesis that not only spiritual phenomena, but even the actual world-nature, that is, and man-were the result of an act of thought on the part of a creative mind, similar, it was supposed, in kind to the human mind.... The philosophers accused the scientific men of narrowness; the scientific men retorted that the philosophers were crazy. And so it came about that men of science began to lay some stress on the banishment of all philosophic influences from their work; while some of them, including men of the greatest acuteness, went so far as to condemn philosophy altogether, not merely as useless, but as mischievous dreaming. Thus, it must be confessed, not only were the illegitimate pretensions of the Hegelian system to subordinate to itself all other studies rejected, but no regard was paid to the rightful claims of philosophy, that is, the criticism of the sources of cognition, and the definition of the functions of the intellect. (Helmholz, quoted in Dampier, 1966, pp. 291-292)
       Philosophy remains true to its classical tradition by renouncing it. (Habermas, 1972, p. 317)
       I have not attempted... to put forward any grand view of the nature of philosophy; nor do I have any such grand view to put forth if I would. It will be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the history of "howlers" and progress in philosophy as the debunking of howlers. It will also be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the enterprise of putting forward a priori truths about the world.... I see philosophy as a field which has certain central questions, for example, the relation between thought and reality.... It seems obvious that in dealing with these questions philosophers have formulated rival research programs, that they have put forward general hypotheses, and that philosophers within each major research program have modified their hypotheses by trial and error, even if they sometimes refuse to admit that that is what they are doing. To that extent philosophy is a "science." To argue about whether philosophy is a science in any more serious sense seems to me to be hardly a useful occupation.... It does not seem to me important to decide whether science is philosophy or philosophy is science as long as one has a conception of both that makes both essential to a responsible view of the world and of man's place in it. (Putnam, 1975, p. xvii)
       What can philosophy contribute to solving the problem of the relation [of] mind to body? Twenty years ago, many English-speaking philosophers would have answered: "Nothing beyond an analysis of the various mental concepts." If we seek knowledge of things, they thought, it is to science that we must turn. Philosophy can only cast light upon our concepts of those things.
       This retreat from things to concepts was not undertaken lightly. Ever since the seventeenth century, the great intellectual fact of our culture has been the incredible expansion of knowledge both in the natural and in the rational sciences (mathematics, logic).
       The success of science created a crisis in philosophy. What was there for philosophy to do? Hume had already perceived the problem in some degree, and so surely did Kant, but it was not until the twentieth century, with the Vienna Circle and with Wittgenstein, that the difficulty began to weigh heavily. Wittgenstein took the view that philosophy could do no more than strive to undo the intellectual knots it itself had tied, so achieving intellectual release, and even a certain illumination, but no knowledge. A little later, and more optimistically, Ryle saw a positive, if reduced role, for philosophy in mapping the "logical geography" of our concepts: how they stood to each other and how they were to be analyzed....
       Since that time, however, philosophers in the "analytic" tradition have swung back from Wittgensteinian and even Rylean pessimism to a more traditional conception of the proper role and tasks of philosophy. Many analytic philosophers now would accept the view that the central task of philosophy is to give an account, or at least play a part in giving an account, of the most general nature of things and of man. (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 37-38)
       8) Philosophy's Evolving Engagement with Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Science
       In the beginning, the nature of philosophy's engagement with artificial intelligence and cognitive science was clear enough. The new sciences of the mind were to provide the long-awaited vindication of the most potent dreams of naturalism and materialism. Mind would at last be located firmly within the natural order. We would see in detail how the most perplexing features of the mental realm could be supported by the operations of solely physical laws upon solely physical stuff. Mental causation (the power of, e.g., a belief to cause an action) would emerge as just another species of physical causation. Reasoning would be understood as a kind of automated theorem proving. And the key to both was to be the depiction of the brain as the implementation of multiple higher level programs whose task was to manipulate and transform symbols or representations: inner items with one foot in the physical (they were realized as brain states) and one in the mental (they were bearers of contents, and their physical gymnastics were cleverly designed to respect semantic relationships such as truth preservation). (A. Clark, 1996, p. 1)
       Socrates of Athens famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living," and his motto aptly explains the impulse to philosophize. Taking nothing for granted, philosophy probes and questions the fundamental presuppositions of every area of human inquiry.... [P]art of the job of the philosopher is to keep at a certain critical distance from current doctrines, whether in the sciences or the arts, and to examine instead how the various elements in our world-view clash, or fit together. Some philosophers have tried to incorporate the results of these inquiries into a grand synoptic view of the nature of reality and our human relationship to it. Others have mistrusted system-building, and seen their primary role as one of clarifications, or the removal of obstacles along the road to truth. But all have shared the Socratic vision of using the human intellect to challenge comfortable preconceptions, insisting that every aspect of human theory and practice be subjected to continuing critical scrutiny....
       Philosophy is, of course, part of a continuing tradition, and there is much to be gained from seeing how that tradition originated and developed. But the principal object of studying the materials in this book is not to pay homage to past genius, but to enrich one's understanding of central problems that are as pressing today as they have always been-problems about knowledge, truth and reality, the nature of the mind, the basis of right action, and the best way to live. These questions help to mark out the territory of philosophy as an academic discipline, but in a wider sense they define the human predicament itself; they will surely continue to be with us for as long as humanity endures. (Cottingham, 1996, pp. xxi-xxii)
       In his study of ancient Greek culture, The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche drew what would become a famous distinction, between the Dionysian spirit, the untamed spirit of art and creativity, and the Apollonian, that of reason and self-control. The story of Greek civilization, and all civilizations, Nietzsche implied, was the gradual victory of Apollonian man, with his desire for control over nature and himself, over Dionysian man, who survives only in myth, poetry, music, and drama. Socrates and Plato had attacked the illusions of art as unreal, and had overturned the delicate cultural balance by valuing only man's critical, rational, and controlling consciousness while denigrating his vital life instincts as irrational and base. The result of this division is "Alexandrian man," the civilized and accomplished Greek citizen of the later ancient world, who is "equipped with the greatest forces of knowledge" but in whom the wellsprings of creativity have dried up. (Herman, 1997, pp. 95-96)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Philosophy

  • 12 Language

       Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)
       It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)
       It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)
       Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)
       It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)
       [A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]
       Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling it
       Solving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into another
       LANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)
       We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)
       We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.
       The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)
       9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own Language
       The forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)
       It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)
       In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)
       In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)
       [It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)
       he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.
       The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)
       The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.
       But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)
       The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)
        t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)
       A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)
       Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)
       It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)
       First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....
       Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)
       If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)
        23) Language Is Inevitably Influenced by Specific Contexts of Human Interaction
       Language cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)
       By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)
       Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language

  • 13 fall

    [fɔ:l, Am esp fɑ:l] n
    1) ( drop from a height) Fall m, Sturz m;
    she broke her leg in the \fall sie brach sich bei dem Sturz ihr Bein;
    to break sb's \fall jds Sturz m abfangen;
    to have a \fall stürzen, hinfallen;
    to take a \fall stürzen;
    ( from a horse) vom Pferd fallen
    2) meteo Niederschlag m;
    [heavy] \falls of rain/ snow [heftige] Regen-/Schneefälle
    3) ( landslide)
    \fall of earth/ rock Erd-/Felsrutsch m
    4) sports ( in wrestling) Schultersieg m
    5) ( downward movement) of a leaf Herabfallen nt kein pl ( geh) ( drop) of a blade, axe, guillotine Herunterfallen nt kein pl; of the level of a liquid Absinken nt kein pl
    6) ( downward slope) Gefälle nt theat
    the audience roared at the \fall of the curtain das Publikum brüllte, als der Vorhang fiel;
    \fall of ground water levels Absinken nt des Grundwasserspiegels;
    the rise and \fall of the tide Flut und Ebbe;
    at the \fall of the tide bei Ebbe
    7) ( decrease) Nachlassen nt kein pl, (in numbers, support, rate, prices) Sinken nt;
    \fall in pressure meteo Fallen nt des Luftdrucks;
    sharp \fall in temperature deutlicher Temperaturrückgang
    8) (defeat, overthrow) of a city Einnahme f;
    the \fall of Constantinople die Eroberung Konstantinopels;
    the \fall of the Roman Empire der Untergang des Römischen Reiches;
    \fall of a government/ regime/ dictator Sturz m einer Regierung/eines Regimes/eines Diktators;
    the \fall of the Berlin Wall/ Iron Curtain der Fall der Berliner Mauer/des Eisernen Vorhangs;
    ... after the president's \fall from power... nach der Entmachtung des Präsidenten
    9) (Am) ( autumn) Herbst m
    \falls pl Wasserfall m;
    [the] Niagara F\falls die Niagarafälle pl
    the F\fall [of Man] der Sündenfall
    PHRASES:
    as innocent as Adam before the F\fall (before the F\fall) so unschuldig wie Adam vor dem Sündenfall;
    to take a [or the] \fall for sb/ sth (Am) für jdn/etw Schuld auf sich akk nehmen, einstehen adj
    attr, inv (Am) ( in autumn) Herbst-, herbstlich;
    \fall plowing Wintersaat f;
    \fall sun Herbstsonne f;
    \fall weather Herbstwetter nt ( of autumn) Herbst-;
    \fall clothing Herbstkleidung f;
    \fall collection Herbstkollektion f vi <fell, fallen>
    1) ( drop down from a height) [herunter]fallen, [hinunter]fallen; curtain fallen;
    the snow had been \falling all day es hatte den ganzen Tag über geschneit;
    more rain had \fallen overnight über Nacht hatte es noch mehr geregnet;
    the bridge collapsed and fell into the river die Brücke brach zusammen und stürzte ins Wasser; ( fig)
    the task of telling her the bad news fell on me ich hatte die Aufgabe, ihr die schlechten Nachrichten zu übermitteln;
    it fell on Henry to take the final decision es war Henrys Aufgabe, eine endgültige Entscheidung zu treffen;
    to \fall into sb's arms jdm in die Arme fallen;
    they fell into each other's arms sie fielen sich in die Arme;
    to \fall into bed ins Bett fallen;
    to \fall to one's death in den Tod stürzen;
    to \fall out of one's dress ( fig) ( fam) aus allen Wolken fallen ( hum) ( fam)
    to \fall to the ground/ on the floor auf den Boden fallen;
    to \fall from a window aus dem Fenster fallen;
    to \fall downstairs die Treppe hinunterfallen [o herunterfallen];
    2) ( from an upright position) hinfallen; tree, post, pillar umfallen;
    he fell badly er stürzte schwer;
    to \fall under a bus/ train/ truck unter einen Bus/Zug/Lastwagen kommen;
    to \fall at a fence horse in einem Hindernis hängen bleiben;
    to \fall to one's knees auf die Knie fallen;
    to \fall [down] dead tot umfallen;
    to \fall flat on one's face [vornüber] aufs Gesicht fallen ( fam)
    3) (fig: fail or get no response) joke, plan, suggestion nicht ankommen;
    (fig: be embarrassingly unsuccessful) auf die Schnauze fallen ( pej) (sl) thing, scheme danebengehen ( fam)
    4) ( land) herunterkommen; light, bomb, shadow, gaze fallen; ( fig)
    we haven't decided yet where the cuts will \fall wir haben noch nicht entschieden, was von den Kürzungen betroffen sein wird;
    we don't at this stage know where the blame will \fall zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt wissen wir noch nicht, wer die Schuld trägt;
    the blows continued to \fall on him die Schläge prasselten weiter auf ihn nieder;
    the axe looks likely to \fall on 500 jobs 500 Stellen werden wahrscheinlich gestrichen werden;
    suspicion immediately fell on him der Verdacht fiel sofort auf ihn;
    silence fell on the group of men Schweigen überkam die Männern ling
    the accent \falls on the second syllable der Akzent liegt auf der zweiten Silbe
    5) (become lower, decrease) demand, numbers, prices, standard sinken; prices fallen meteo; temperature, pressure fallen, sinken; barometer fallen;
    the temperature could well \fall below zero this evening die Temperatur könnte heute Abend auf unter null absinken;
    water supplies have fallen to danger levels der Wasservorrat ist auf einen gefährlich niedrigen Level abgesunken;
    the attendance fell well below the expected figure die Besucherzahlen blieben weit hinter den erwarteten Zahlen zurück;
    to \fall to a whisper in einen Flüsterton verfallen
    6) ( move to a lower position) in einer Tabelle/in den Charts fallen;
    to \fall to the bottom of the league table ganz unten auf der Tabelle stehen;
    to \fall in sb's estimation bei jdm im Ansehen sinken
    7) ( be defeated or overthrown) gestürzt werden, untergehen;
    ( be conquered) a city, town eingenommen werden, fallen; person zerbrechen;
    to \fall to pieces plan, relationship in die Brüche gehen; person zerbrechen;
    to \fall from power seines Amtes enthoben werden;
    to \fall to sb jdm in die Hände fallen;
    Basildon finally fell to Labour at the last election Basildon fiel in der letzten Wahl Labour zu
    8) (liter: die in battle) fallen
    9) rel (do wrong, sin) von Gott abfallen
    Easter \falls early/ late this year Ostern ist dieses Jahr früh/spät;
    to \fall on a Monday/ Wednesday auf einen Montag/Mittwoch fallen
    darkness \falls early in the tropics in den Tropen wird es früh dunkel;
    night was already \falling es begann bereits dunkel zu werden
    this matter \falls outside the area for which we are responsible diese Sache fällt nicht in unseren Zuständigkeitsbereich;
    any offence committed in this state \falls within the jurisdiction of this court für jedes Vergehen, das in diesem Staat begangen wird, ist die Rechtsprechung dieses Gerichts zuständig;
    to \fall into a category/ class in eine Kategorie/Klasse gehören;
    the text \falls into three categories der Text gliedert sich in drei Kategorien
    13) ( hang down) herabhängen ( geh), fallen;
    her hair fell to her waist ihr Haar reichte ihr bis zur Taille
    14) (slope, go downward) cliff [steil] abfallen
    15) + n
    to \fall prey [or victim] to sb/ sth jdm/etw zum Opfer fallen
    16) + adj ( become)
    to \fall asleep einschlafen;
    to \fall due fällig sein;
    to \fall foul of sb mit jdm Streit bekommen;
    to \fall foul of a law [or regulation] ein Gesetz übertreten;
    to \fall ill [or sick] krank werden;
    to \fall open a book, magazine aufklappen;
    to \fall silent verstummen;
    to \fall vacant a room frei werden; a position, post vakant werden
    to \fall for sb sich akk in jdn verknallen (sl)
    they all fell into hysterics sie kringelten sich alle vor Lachen;
    he fell into a reflective mood er fing an zu grübeln;
    to \fall into debt sich akk verschulden;
    to \fall into disrepute in Misskredit geraten;
    to \fall into disrepair [or decay] verkommen;
    to \fall into disuse nicht mehr benutzt werden;
    to \fall into error/ sin rel sich akk versündigen;
    to \fall out of favour [or (Am) favor] [with sb] [bei jdm] nicht mehr gefragt sein ( fam)
    to \fall into the habit of doing sth sich dat angewöhnen, etw zu tun;
    to \fall under the influence of sb/ sth unter den Einfluss einer Person/einer S. gen geraten;
    to \fall in love [with sb/sth] sich akk [in jdn/etw] verlieben;
    to \fall out of love [with sb/sth] nicht mehr [in jdn/etw] verliebt sein;
    to have fallen under the spell of sb/ sth von jdm/etw verzaubert sein;
    to \fall into a/ sb's trap ( fig) [jdm] in die Falle gehen;
    I was afraid that I might be \falling into a trap ich hatte Angst, in eine Falle zu laufen; ( fig)
    they fell into the trap of overestimating their own ability to deal with the situation sie haben ihre eigene Fähigkeit, mit der Situation umzugehen, völlig überschätzt
    to \fall for sth auf etw akk hereinfallen
    to \fall among thieves unter die Räuber fallen veraltet
    to \fall on sb über jdn herfallen
    the worst job fell to me die schlimmste Arbeit musste ich erledigen;
    clearing up fell to Tim and Stephen für das Aufräumen waren Tim und Stephen zuständig;
    it \falls to the committee to... es ist Aufgabe des Komitees,...;
    to \fall under sth zu etw dat gehören;
    that side of the business \falls under my department dieser Geschäftsteil fällt in meinen Zuständigkeitsbereich;
    that \falls under the heading... das fällt unter die Rubrik...
    22) (liter: embrace)
    to \fall on sb jdn in die Arme schließen ( liter)
    they fell on each other sie fielen sich in die Arme
    PHRASES:
    to \fall on deaf ears auf taube Ohren stoßen;
    sb's face fell jdm fiel das Gesicht herunter ( fam), jd macht ein langes Gesicht;
    to \fall on stony ground auf felsigen Grund fallen ( liter)
    to \fall into the hands [or clutches] of sb jdm in die Hände fallen;
    to \fall in [or into] line [with sth] sich akk [an etw akk] anpassen;
    to \fall into place sich von selbst ergeben;
    ( making sense) Sinn machen;
    to \fall on hard times harte Zeiten durchleben;
    to \fall short [of sth] etw nicht erreichen;
    to \fall short of sb's expectations hinter jds Erwartungen zurückbleiben

    English-German students dictionary > fall

  • 14 Hansom, Joseph Aloysius

    SUBJECT AREA: Land transport
    [br]
    b. 26 October 1803 York, England
    d. 29 June 1883 Fulham, London, England
    [br]
    English architect and inventor, originator of the Hansom cab.
    [br]
    In 1816 he was apprenticed to his father, who was a joiner. After a year his abilities in design and construction were so marked that it was decided that he would have more scope as an architect. He was accordingly apprenticed to a Mr Phillips in York, becoming a clerk to Phillips in 1820. While he served his time he also worked on his own account and taught at a night school. In 1825 he married Hannah Glover and settled in Halifax, where he became Assistant to another architect. In 1828 he became a partner of Edward Welch, with whom he built a number of churches in the north of England. He designed the Town Hall for Birmingham and was responsible for the constructional work until 1833, but he had to become bond because the builders caused him to become bankrupt. He was appointed Manager of the business affairs of Dempster Hemming of Caldicote Hall, which included the landed estates, banking and coal-mining. It was during this period that he designed the "Patent Safety Cab" named after him and popular in Victorian days. The safety element consisted in lowering the centre of gravity by the use of the cranked axle. Hansom sold his rights for £10,000 to a company proposing to exploit the patent, but he was never paid, for the company got into difficulties; Hansom became its temporary Manager in 1839 and put matters right, for which he was paid £300, all he ever made out of the Hansom Cab. In 1842 he brought out the first issue of The Builder, but lack of capital caused him to retire from the journal. He devoted himself from then on to domestic and ecclesiastical architecture, designing many churches, colleges, convents and schools all over Britain and even in Australia and South America. Of note is St Walburga's church, Preston, Lancashire, whose spire is 306 ft (93 m) high. At various times he was in partnership with his younger brother, his eldest son, and with E.W.Pugin with whom he had a disagreement. He was a Catholic and much of his work was for the Catholic Church.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    1882, The Builder (8 July).
    1882, Illustrated London News (15 July).
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Hansom, Joseph Aloysius

  • 15 Madeira Islands, Archipelago of

       An autonomous region of Portugal in the Atlantic Ocean that consists of the islands of Madeira and Porto Santo and several smaller isles. The capital of the archipelago is Funchal on Madeira Island. The islands have a total area of 496 square kilometers (308 square miles) and are located about 1,126 kilometers (700 miles) southwest of Lisbon. Discovered uninhabited by Portuguese navigators between 1419 and 1425, but probably seen earlier by Italian navigators, the Madeiras were so named because of the extensive forests found on the islands' volcanic hills and mountains (the name Madeiras means wood or timber). Prince Henry of Aviz (Prince Henry the Navigator) was first responsible for the settlement and early colonization of these islands.
       The Madeiran economy was soon dominated by sugar plantations, which were begun when the Portuguese transplanted sugar plants from the Mediterranean. In the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, Madeira was worked largely by black African slaves brought from West Africa, and the islands produced sugar, cereals, and wine. Eventually the islands' fortunes were governed by a new kind of wine called "Madeira," developed in the 17th century. Madeira was produced using a heating process, and became famous as a sweet, fortified dessert wine popular both in Great Britain and in British North America. It was a favorite drink of America's Thomas Jefferson. The Madeira wine business was developed largely under British influence, management, and capital, although the labor was supplied by African slaves and Portuguese settlers. Two other main staples of these islands' economy were initially developed due to the initiatives of British residents as well. In the 18th century, Madeira became an early tourist attraction and health spa for Britain, and the islands' tourist facilities began to be developed. It was a British woman resident in the 19th century who introduced the idea of the Madeiran embroidered lace industry, an industry that sends its fine products not only to Portugal but all over the world.
       Since the 1950s, with new international airline connections with Britain and Portugal, the Madeiras have become a popular tourist destination and, along with Madeira wine, tourism became a major foreign exchange earner. Among European and British visitors especially, Madeira Island has attracted visitors who like flower and garden tours, challenging mountain walks, and water sports. Over the last century, a significant amount of Madeiran emigration has occurred, principally to the United States (California and Hawaii being the favored residential states), the Caribbean, and, more recently, South Africa. Since 1976, the Madeiras have been, like the Azores Islands, an autonomous region of Portugal.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Madeira Islands, Archipelago of

  • 16 Boulsover, Thomas

    [br]
    b. 1704
    d. 1788
    [br]
    English cutler, metalworker and inventor of Sheffield plate.
    [br]
    Boulsover, originally a small-scale manufacturer of cutlery, is believed to have specialized in making knife-handle components. About 1742 he found that a thin sheet of silver could be fused to copper sheet by rolling or beating to flatten it. Thus he developed the plating of silver, later called Sheffield plate.
    The method when perfected consisted of copper sheet overlaid by thin sheet silver being annealed by red heat. Protected by iron sheeting, the copper and silver were rolled together, becoming fused to a single plate capable of undergoing further manufacturing processes. Later developments included methods of edging the fused sheets and the placing of silver sheet on both lower and upper surfaces of copper, to produce high-quality silver plate, in much demand by the latter part of the century. Boulsover himself is said to have produced only small articles such as buttons and snuff boxes from this material, which by 1758 was being exploited more commercially by Joseph Hancock in Sheffield making candlesticks, hot-water pots and coffee pots. Matthew Boulton introduced its manufacture in very high-quality products during the 1760s to Birmingham, where the technique was widely adopted later. By the 1770s Boulsover was engaged in rolling his plated copper for industry elsewhere, also trading in iron and purchasing blister steel which he converted by the Huntsman process to crucible steel. Blister steel was converted on his behalf to shear steel by forging. He is thought to have also been responsible for improving this product further, introducing "double-shear steel", by repeating the forging and faggoting of shear steel bars. Thomas Boulsover had become a Sheffield entrepreneur, well known for his numerous skills with metals.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    H.W.Dickinson, 1937, Matthew Boulton, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (describes Boulsover's innovation and further development of Sheffield plate).
    J.Holland, 1834, Manufactures in Metal III, 354–8.
    For activities in steel see: K.C.Barraclough, 1991, "Steel in the Industrial Revolution", in J.Day and R.F.Tylecote (eds), The Industrial Revolution in Metals, The Institute of Metals.
    JD

    Biographical history of technology > Boulsover, Thomas

  • 17 Coster, John

    [br]
    b. c. 1647 Gloucestershire, England
    d. 13 October 1718 Bristol, England
    [br]
    English innovator in the mining, smelting and working of copper.
    [br]
    John Coster, son of an iron-forge manager in the Forest of Dean, by the age of 38 was at Bristol, where he was "chief agent and sharer therein" in the new lead-smelting methods using coal fuel. In 1685 the work, under Sir Clement Clerke, was abandoned because of patent rights claimed by Lord Grandison, who financed of earlier attempts. Clerke's business turned to the coal-fired smelting of copper under Coster, later acknowledged as responsible for the subsequent success through using an improved reverberatory furnace which separated coal fume from the ores being smelted. The new technique, applicable also to lead and tin smelting, revitalized copper production and provided a basis for new British industry in both copper and brass manufacture during the following century. Coster went on to manage a copper-smelting works, and by the 1690s was supplying Esher copper-and brass-works in Surrey from his Redbrook, Gloucestershire, works on the River Wye. In the next decade he extended his activities to Cornish copper mining, buying ore and organizing ore sales, and supplying the four major copper and brass companies which by then had become established. He also made copper goods in additional water-powered rolling and hammer mills acquired in the Bristol area. Coster was ably assisted by three sons; of these, John and Robert were mainly active in Cornwall. In 1714 the younger John, with his father, patented an "engine for drawing water out of deep mines". The eldest son, Thomas, was more involved at Redbrook, in South Wales and the Bristol area. A few years after the death of his father, Thomas became partner in the brass company of Bristol and sold them the Redbrook site. He became Member of Parliament for Bristol and, by then the only surviving son, planned a large new smelting works at White Rock, Swansea, South Wales, before his death in 1734. Partners outside the family continued the business under a new name.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1714, British patent 397, with John Coster Jr.
    Further Reading
    Rhys Jenkins, 1942, "Copper works at Redbrook and Bristol", Transactions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society 63.
    Joan Day, 1974–6, "The Costers: copper smelters and manufacturers", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 47:47–58.
    JD

    Biographical history of technology > Coster, John

  • 18 Krylov, Alexei Nicolaevitch

    SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping
    [br]
    b. 15 August 1863 Visyoger, Siberia
    d. 26 October 1945 Leningrad (now St Petersburg), Russia
    [br]
    Russian academician and naval architect) exponent of a rigorous mathematical approach to the study of ship motions.
    [br]
    After schooling in France and Germany, Krylov returned to St Petersburg (as it then was) and in 1878 entered the Naval College. Upon graduating, he started work with the Naval Hydrographic Department; the combination of his genius and breadth of interest became apparent, and from 1888 until 1890 he undertook simultaneously a two-year university course in mathematics and a naval architecture course at his old college. On completion of his formal studies, Krylov commenced fifty years of service to the academic bodies of St Petersburg, including eight years as Superintendent of the Russian Admiralty Ship Model Experiment Tank. For many years he was Professor of Naval Architecture in the city, reorganizing the methods of teaching of his profession in Russia. It was during this period that he laid the foundations of his remarkable research and published the first of his many books destined to become internationally accepted in the fields of waves, rolling, ship motion and vibration. Practical work was not overlooked: he was responsible for the design of many vessels for the Imperial Russian Navy, including the battleships Sevastopol and Petropavlovsk, and went on, as Director of Naval Construction, to test anti-rolling tanks aboard military vessels in the North Atlantic in 1913. Following the Revolution, Krylov was employed by the Soviet Union to re-establish scientific links with other European countries, and on several occasions he acted as Superintendent in the procurement of important technical material from overseas. In 1919 he was appointed Head of the Marine Academy, and from then on participated in many scientific conferences and commissions, mainly in the shipbuilding field, and served on the Editorial Board of the well-respected Russian periodical Sudostroenie (Shipbuilding). The breadth of his personal research was demonstrated by the notable contributions he made to the Russian development of the gyro compass.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Member, Russian Academy of Science 1814. Royal Institution of Naval Architects Gold Medal 1898. State Prize of the Soviet Union (first degree). Stalin Premium for work on compass deviation.
    Bibliography
    Krylov published more than 500 books, papers and articles; these have been collected and published in twelve volumes by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. 1942, My Memories (autobiography).
    AK / FMW

    Biographical history of technology > Krylov, Alexei Nicolaevitch

  • 19 Shoenberg, Isaac

    [br]
    b. 1 March 1880 Kiev, Ukraine
    d. 25 January 1963 Willesden, London, England
    [br]
    Russian engineer and friend of Vladimir Zworykin; Director of Research at EMI, responsible for creating the team that successfully developed the world's first all-electronic television system.
    [br]
    After his initial engineering education at Kiev Polytechnic, Shoenberg went to London to undertake further studies at the Royal College of Science. In 1905 he returned to Russia and rose to become Chief Engineer of the Russian Wireless Telegraphy Company. He then returned to England, where he was a consultant in charge of the Patent Department and then joint General Manager of the Marconi Wireless Telegraphy Company (see Marconi). In 1929 he joined the Columbia Graphophone Company, but two years later this amalgamated with the Gramophone Company, by then known as His Master's voice (HMV), to form EMI (Electric and Musical Industries), a company in which the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) had a significant shareholding. Appointed Director of the new company's Research Laboratories in 1931, Shoenberg gathered together a team of highly skilled engineers, including Blumlein, Browne, Willans, McGee, Lubszynski, Broadway and White, with the objective of producing an all-electronic television system suitable for public broadcasting. A 150-line system had already been demonstrated using film as the source material; a photoemissive camera tube similar to Zworykin's iconoscope soon followed. With alternate demonstrations of the EMI system and the mechanical system of Baird arranged with the object of selecting a broadcast system for the UK, Shoenberg took the bold decision to aim for a 405-line "high-definition" standard, using interlaced scanning based on an RCA patent and further developed by Blumlein. This was so successful that it was formally adopted as the British standard in 1935 and regular broadcasts, the first in the world, began in 1937. It is a tribute to Shoenberg's vision and the skills of his team that this standard was to remain in use, apart from the war years, until finally superseded in 1985.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Knighted 1954. Institution of Electrical Engineers Faraday Medal 1954.
    Further Reading
    A.D.Blumlein et al., 1938, "The Marconi-EMI television system", Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers 83:729 (provides a description of the development of the 405-line system).
    For more background information, see Proceedings of the International Conference on the History of Television. From Early Days to the Present, November 1986, Institution of Electrical Engineers Publication No. 271.
    KF

    Biographical history of technology > Shoenberg, Isaac

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